Table 2.
Transcription factors and inflammatory mediators involved in inflammation and oxidative stress.
| Transcription factors/inflammatory mediators | Biological roles | References |
|---|---|---|
| Transcription factors | ||
| Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) | Initiates the expression of inflammatory genes, inflammasome regulation, innate immune cells and inflammatory T cell regulation, and differentiation | (75) |
| Activator protein 1 (AP-1) | Initiates cell differentiation, survival, apoptosis, and cytokine expression | (76) |
| Hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α) | Induces host immune function, vascularization, angiogenesis, cell migration, and tumor invasion | (77, 78) |
| Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf-2) | Induce the expression of antioxidant enzymes in response to oxidant exposure; inhibits inflammation | (79) |
| Tumor protein p53 | Controls cell division and apoptosis, tumor suppression, and DNA repair | (80) |
| Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPAR-γ) | Adipocyte regulation; blocks the expression of inflammatory cytokines and initiates immune cell differentiation | (81) |
| Cytokines | ||
| Tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α and TNF-β) | Acts as an amplifier of inflammation; recruits neutrophils and macrophages | (76, 82) |
| Interleukins | Pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory; promotes activation and differentiation of immune cells, including proliferation, migration, and adhesion | (83) |
| Transforming growth factors (TGF-α and TGF-β) | Regulates immune cells; inhibits growth and activation | (76) |
| Chemokines | ||
| Monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1 and -3) | Promotes monocyte migration | (76) |
| Macrophage inflammatory protein-1 (MIP-1α) | Macrophage activation; recruitment of leucocytes to the site of inflammation | (84) |
| RANTES (regulated on activation, normal T-expressed and secreted, CCL5) | Immune cell migration | (76) |