Table 3.
Summary of main cardiovascular, antidiabetic, cytotoxic and other pharmacological effects exerted by shallot extracts.
| Pharmacological effect | Model | Results | Extract | Zone | Species | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cardiovascular effects | ||||||
| Effect on hematological profile | In vivo A/M: NA O: male albino rats PC: NA | (E) 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2 g/kg ↓ Total cholesterol, HDL, LDL ↓Red blood cells parameters ↑ Platelet count, percent neutrophil ↕ triglycerides |
E (EtOH) | Ilorin, Nigeria | BN: A. ascalonicum P: dried leaves | (91) |
| In vivo A/M: streptozotocin-induced diabetes O: 40 wistar albino (Rattus norvegicus) rats PC: acarbose | (Snack) 14 days ↓ Packed cell volume (PCV), hemoglobin concentration (Hbc), white blood cells (WBC), red blood cells (RBC), lymphocytes levels |
D (40°C; 96 h) >> M (60 mm mesh sieve) >> Snack (25%) | Shasha market, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum P: bulb | (65) | |
| Effect on lipid profile | In vivo A/M: Atherogenic feed → hypercholesterolemia O: Rattus novergicus PC: Atorvastatin | (F): 0.2 g/kg ↓ Total cholesterol with 20.44% (7th day); 37% (14th day) and 49.58% (21st day) (PC) 20 mg ↓ Total cholesterol with 15.62% (7th day); 25.84% (14th day) and 36.47% (21st day) |
F (15 days, 50–80°C) | NA | PN: red onion BN: A. cepa L. var aggregatum P: fresh, without peeling | (92) |
| Antiplatelet activity | In vitro A/M: electrical impedance aggregometry O: Blood collected from 2 healthy donors PC: NA | (E) IC50 = 18.9 mg fw/ml whole blood | E (Water; 1:2) | Mendoza, Argentina | PN: Shallot P: peeled bulbs | (60). |
| In silico A/M: molecular docking | UAE (compounds identified): P2Y12 inhibitory activity | UAE (EtOH 96%; 1:4.375; 40°C, 30 min) >> F >> Ev | traditional markets | PN: Shallot P: skin | (93) | |
| Ischemic stroke prevention | Cross-sectional observational 125 patients | No good correlation between shallot intake and brachial artery flow-mediated dilatation | Food frequency questionnaire | China | PN: Shallot P: NA | (94) |
| Antidiabetic effects | ||||||
| α-glucosidase inhibition | In vitro A/M: High-resolution α-glucosidase profiling PC: NA | (UAE) IC50 = 0.012 mg/ml | D (sun-dried or oven-dried at 40°C) >> UAE (EtOAc; 1:10.86; 3 min shaking; 2 h sonication; r.t.) | Denmark | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum P: peel | (81) |
| Effect on glucose levels | In vivo A/M: alloxan-induced diabetes Wistar rats PC1: acarbose (20 mg/kg) PC2: glibenclamide (5 mg/kg) PC3: metformin (100 mg/kg) | (E) 0.5 g/kg ↓PBG 5.7% (~C2) – short term (3 h) ↓PBG 32% (~C3) – long term (3 weeks) ↑regulation of Glut-4 and Insulin genes |
E (MeOH 80%; 1:1.5; Soxhlet; 72 h) >> F >> Ev (y = 17%) | Alborz mountain in the north of Tehran, Iran | PN: Persian shallot BN: A. ascalonicum L. P: bulb | (95) |
| Effect on antioxidant enzyme status Effect on lipid profile |
In vivo A/M: alloxan-induced diabetes O: Wistar rats PC: metformin (100 mg/kg) | (E) ↑ SOD (65%), ↑ GPX (43%) ↑ CAT (55%) ↓VLDL (24%) |
D >> E (MeOH 80%; 1:1.5; Soxhlet; 72 h) >> F >> Ev (y = 17%) | Tehran province of Iran | PN: Persian shallot BN: A. ascalonicum L. P: bulb | (96) |
| Effect on histology of liver | In vivo A/M: alloxan-induced diabetes O: Wistar rats PC: metformin (45 mg/kg BW) | (E) 0.25 g/kg ↑histopathological feature of liver |
NA | NA | PN: Onion/shallot BN: A. ascalonicum L P: NA | (97) |
| Effect on glucose levels | In vivo A/M: Fructose-induced insulin resistance O: 34 male albino Wistar rats PC: NA | (E) 0.75 g/kg (4th week) ↕Fasting insulin resistance index; ↕Intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (8th week) ↑Intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test; ↓Fasting insulin resistance index |
E (0.9% saline; 1:0.66; 15 min) >> F (3 times) >> + 0.9% saline (1:1.33) | Local market in Mashhad, Iran | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum L P: bulb | (98) |
| Effect on glucose levels | In vivo A/M: streptozotocin-induced diabetes O: 40 wistar albino (Rattus norvegicus) rats PC: acarbose | (E) 30% to 59% reduction in blood glucose | D (40°C; 96 h) >> M (60 mm mesh sieve) >> Snack (25%) | Shasha market, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum P: bulb | (65) |
| Effect on lipid profile | Parallel randomized clinical trial O: 48 participants PC: NA | (Fresh) 2 g shallot/100 g yogurt ↓ TG, TC and LDL-C ↕ FBS |
Fresh shallot | Caleh Company. Caleh, Isfahan, Iran | PN: Shallot P: NA | (99) |
| Cancer-related effects | ||||||
| Cytotoxicity | In vivo A/M: Antitumor activity O: BDF1 mice PC: NA | (E) 0.266–0.5 g/kg P388 leukemia ↑ % of median survival time |
E (Water; 1:5; 5 min) >> C (1 h, 2000x g) >> FD | Local market, USA | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum P: bulb | (100) |
| In vitro A/M: MTT assay HepG2 PC: NA | (E) IC50 = 0.050 mg/ml | E (EtOH; 1:1; one night) >> F (no 1) >> C (16000 rpm; 4°C) >> D (80°C – 20 min; 50°C – 30 min) | Local vegetable markets, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, India | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum P: bulbs | (101) | |
| In vitro A/M: Alamar blue assay; flow cytometry; Western blot and Caspase 3 activity kit PC: NA | ↓ Bcl-2 and surviving ↑ Bax, Bad, Apaf-1, p53 and Caspase 9 |
NA | NA | BN: A. ascalonicum P: NA | (102) | |
| In vitro A/M: Trypan blue exclusion assay and activity of lactate dehydrogenase method O: K562, Jurkat, Wehi164, and HUVEC PC: NA | (E) K562 (IC50 = 100 μg/ml) Jurkat (IC50 = 100 μg/ml) Wehi164 (IC50 = 400 μg/ml) HUVEC (IC50 = 1600 μg/ml) |
E (Water; 1:1; one night) >> F >> C (16,000x g; 4°C; 30 min) >> FD (y = 27.4%) | local vegetable markets at Kermanshah, Iran | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum P: bulbs | (87) | |
| In vitro A/M: MTT O: P3U1 cell line PC: NA | (Cepa2) 0.050 mg/ml 91.13% reduction in P3U1 cell viability 12 h apoptosis of the Cepa2-treated P3U1 cells in a time course-dependent manner |
Complex–compound isolation (Cepa2/alliospiroside A) | NA | PN: Shallot BN: A. cepa L. Aggregatum group P: dry roots | (82) | |
| Desmutagenicity | In vitro A/M: Mutagenicity inactivation assay PC: NA | (J) ↓ mutagenic activity effect by tryptophan-pyrolysates | J >> C (9000x g; 30 min) | Misima, Japan | PN: Shallot P: NA | (103) |
| Angiogenesis | In vitro A/M: human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) PC: quercetin In vivo A/M: chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model | (E4) IC50 = 1 μg/ml (HUVEC) (PC) IC50 = 10 μg/ml (E4) 3 ng/egg (see Figure XXB) 10 ng/egg (see Figure XXC) |
E1 (EtOH 50%; 24 h) >> C (12,000x g;20 min; 4°C) >> Ev >> E2 (Water) >> E3 (n-hexane) >> E4 (ethyl acetate) >> E5 (n-butanol) >> Ev | local vegetable market at Kermanshah (Iran) |
PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum P: NA | (47) |
| Ex vivo A/M: aorta ring model O: Wistar male rats A/M: Cytotoxicity: trypan blue assay PC: NA | (E) 50–800 μg/ml ↑ anti-angiogenetic effect |
E (Water) | NA | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum P: NA | (104) | |
| Clinical studies | Case control O: 627 patients | Inverse association between shallot intake and gallbladder cancer (OR: 0.81, 95% CI: 0.68–0.97) | NA | Shanghai, China | PN: Shallot | (105) |
| Case control O: 220 patients | Intake of shallot and garlic associated with a reduced risk of multiple myeloma (OR = 0.60, 95% CI: 0.43–0.85) | J | Northwest China | PN: Shallot | (106) | |
| Case-case control Ex vivo A/M: S-P immunohistochemical technique (expression of CD44v6) | Expression of CD44v6 is correlated with gastric cancer ≥7 times/week consumption of shallot and garlic → |
J | China | PN: Shallot | (107) | |
| Retrospective questionnaire | Eating shallots → protective effect against breast cancer | J | Maoshan Municipal People' s Hospital, China | PN: Shallot | (108) | |
| Other pharmacological effects | ||||||
| Xanthine oxidase inhibitory activity | In vitro A/M: Xanthine oxidase assay PC: Quercetin | (E): IC50 = 3.23 μg/ml (PC): IC50 = 2.69 μg/ml |
E (EtOH 50%;1:125; 85°C; 30 min) >> Ev (50°C; 80 mbar) | Kinh Mon, Hai Duong, Vietnam | BN: A. cepa var. aggregatum G.Don P: skin | (80) |
| Anti-tyrosinase Anti-melanogenic |
In vitro (mushroom) In vivo (B16F10 cell line) PC: Kojic acid | (E) IC50 = 22.79 ± 3.49 mg/ml (mushroom) IC50 = 12.40 ± 1.08 mg/ml (B16F10) ↓ melanin (B16F10) (PC) %I = 41.85% (20 μM) |
D >> E (EtOH 20%; 40°C; 4 h) >> Ev | Phayao, Thailand | BN: A. ascalonicum P: NA | (109) |
| Anoctamin-1 inhibitory activity | In vitro A/M: yellow fluorescent protein reduction assay PC: Ani9 | (E) 30 μM Alliumascaside B: 28.9 ± 0.85% Kudinoside D: 26.2 ± 0.65% (PC) 3 μM: 97.5% (%I) |
Complex–compound isolation | Hanoi City, China | BN: A. ascalonicum L. P: rhizomes | (83) |
| Uric acid level lowering | In vivo A/M: potassium oxonate-induced hyperuricemia O: male Sprague-Dawley rats PC: Allopurinol | (E) 10.5 g/kg/day (PC) 0.005 g/kg/day ↓ Uric acid levels ↓ Histological changes in liver ↕ Histological changes in kidney |
J (Water; SLR 1:1) | Grand Union Supermarket, Serdang, Malaysia | PN: red onion BN: A. cepa var. aggregatum G. Don P: edible part | (110) |
| Nephrotoxicity protection | In vivo A/M: Cyclosporine-induced nephrotoxicity O: Male Wistar rats PC: 1,1,3,3-tetramethoxypropane (MDA, GSH) | (E) 1 g/kg/day ↑Renal function ↓Oxidative stress markers (MDA, GSH) ↓Morphological changes |
J >> F >> FD | Local farm, Thailand | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum L. P: bulb | (111) |
| Hepatoprotection | In vivo A/M: (a) Acute toxicity test (b) Ethanol-induced Liver Injury O: male ICR (Imprinting Control Region) mice PC: silymarin | (a) (E) 2 g/kg/day - no toxicity (b) 0.2 g/kg/day (E) and 10 mg/kg/day (PC): ↓AST, ALT, GGT, ALP |
E (Water; SLR 1:10; 5 min; 72 h) >> F (gauze) >> FD | Local market, Suphanburi Province, Thailand | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum P: peeled bulbs | (46) |
| Spermatogenesis | In vivo O: Balb/C Mice PC: NA | (E) 0.8 mg/kg/day ↑ Spermatogonia ↑ Primary spermatocytes ↑ Spermatids ↑ Internal and external diameters of tubules and germinal layer area |
E (EtOH; SLR 1:0.714; 4 days) >> F >> Ev | Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari province, Iran | BN: A. cepa var. ascalonicum P: NA | (112) |
| In vivo A/M: streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice O: Adult male mice (ICR strain) PC: glibenclamide | (J) 1,000 mg/100 g BW (PC) 1 mg/100 g BW ↑ gonadal index;↑ sperm concentration;↑ number of viable sperms; ↑ number of motility sperms |
J | Khon Kaen province, Thailand | BN: A. ascalonocum P: fresh aged bulbs | (113) | |
| Wound Healing | In vivo A/M: Excision wound model O: Sprague Dawley rats PC: Terramycin | (E) 10%; 20% (w/w) and (PC) ↑ Wound healing Fully recovered epidermis in 8 days, compared to control (12 days) |
E (95% EtOH; SLR = 1:1; 1 night, r.t.) >> F >> Ev >> FD | Thai market in Pathumthani, Thailand | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum Linn. P: dry bulbs | (20) |
| Mucolytic | In vitro A/M: Mucolitic activity test duck egg albumen PC: N-Acetylcysteine | (E) 25% and (PC) 0.2% ↓Viscosity of albumen |
E (EtOH 96%; 1:5; 1 h, 40°C) >> F >> Ev (40 ° C) | “Market”, Indonesia | PN: shallot BN: A. ascalonicum L. P: peeled bulbs | (114) |
| Anti-cough | Clinical trial A/M: acute cough O: 14 patients | (Mixture) 3.23% | Mixture | Thai herbal shop | PN: Shallot BN: A. ascalonicum L. | (115) |
| Iron availability | In vitro A/M: iron availability assay by (116); PC: NA | (E) ↓ Iron dialyzability by 50–80% |
J >> FD | Ubon Ratchathani province, Thailand | PN: shallot BN: A. ascalonicum P: bulb | (117) |
| In vitro A/M: iron availability assay after enzymatic treatment PC: NA | (E) ↑ Iron availability (18.9%—raw rice; 23.3—cooked rice; 48.2%—raw grains) | J | Local market, China | PN: shallot BN: A. ascalonicum P: bulb | (118) | |
A/M, assay/model; O, organism; PC, positive control; E, extract; D, drying; J, juice; C, centrifugation; Ev, evaporation; P, plant part; F, filtration; FD, freeze-drying; NA, not available; UAE, ultrasound-assisted extraction.