Table 9.

Summary of the findings and planning/policy recommendations.

Factor	Effects on COVID-19 spread	Planning and policy recommendations
Density	Depending on the scale and context, contrasting evidence has been reported on the effects of density on the spread of COVID-19. However, the congestion of people, facilities and activities in specific areas increase the transmission of the virus.	Compact city is advocated as a sustainable form of development. Based on the fact that it may increase the spread of COVID-19, to maintain interest in compact cities, the densification should be supplemented by other policies such as increasing the walkability and open and green spaces and reducing the distance between work and home.
Land use	The mixing of different land uses may not be a significant factor. However, the high density of specific land uses such as restaurants and bars, hospitals and clinics, shopping centers and recreational facilities, and transportation infrastructures positively affect the spread of COVID-19.	Mixing different land uses can reduce the mobility of the population that reduces the transmission of viruses. However, it is of great importance to not concentrate all land uses in specific places such as central areas. The distribution and decentralization of land uses will help residents access their needs at shorter distances and times. Accordingly, it could reduce the spread of COVID-19 in cities and regions.
Transportation and mobility	Public transportation and stations were among the most significant and positive contributors to COVID-19 spread on different scales. Higher connectivity to large cities (that are the epicenters of the pandemic) increases the chance of transmission to smaller cities.	It is undeniable that using private car is associated with lower rate of COVID-19. However, it should be considered that post-COVID mobility should feature a balance between sustainability and public health. Therefore, we recommend finding solutions to reduce overcrowding in public transportation, instead of relying on car-dependent mobility in urban regions.
Housing conditions	While different factors of housing conditions such as facilities and price may have effect of the spread of COVID-19, overcrowding is the most consistent factor that is associated with higher rates of cases in all scales.	Housing condition is one of the most critical factors that planners and policymakers should pay attention to. New building development policies and regulations should consider provision of appropriate per capita living spaces, albeit based on the context. Also, remote working has now become more common and the need for more flexible housing design layouts should be considered in building permissions and guidelines.
Demographic factors	In general, cities or regions with higher share of aged population and household size are more vulnerable to COVID-19 cases. Additionally, more urbanized regions have higher rate of COVID-19 cases based on the current review.	As demographic features of the cities and regions affect COVID-19 spread, we recommend that restrictions and other policies be implemented based on demographic features. For example, a map of population vulnerability be provided, and policies be implemented in cities with higher rates of vulnerable social groups.
Socio-economic factors	Contrasting evidence has been reported for the effects of socio-economic factors such as poverty, income, and education in different contexts. However, social inequalities and the share of vulnerable groups and minorities are associated with higher rates of COVID-19 cases. In contrast, employees with higher chance of working remotely reduce the chance of transmission.	Governments need to have more supportive policies for socially vulnerable groups such as minorities as they may not be able to have a decent life if they want to comply with the mobility restrictions. Moreover, remote working is a new working culture that reduces the spread of the virus. We recommend that businesses provide the facilities for flexible working to allow implementing mobility restriction when needed. As mentioned earlier, the needs and requirements of remote working should also be considered in land use planning and housing design.
Health-related factors	The regions and cities with better access to health facilities may not have a lower rate of infection but have a lower rate of mortality. Also, health condition of residents, specifically aged population, is a key predictor of infection and mortality rates.	For national government policy makers, we recommend considering accessibility as a key factor and not just emphasize the per capita standard. For planners and designers, we recommend introducing and implementing policies that encourage physical activity in the neighborhoods.