Table 2.

Overview of outcomes from 18 studies

Reference	Collaboration	Professions involved	Setting	Care provided	Outcomes
Miller [29]	The American Cancer Society	Volunteers recruited by the American Cancer Society	Services provided by the volunteers of the American Cancer Society in healthcare settings in the USA	Services such as information and counseling services whereby qualified volunteers are trained to answer general questions on cancer asked by patients, but do not give specific medical professional advice, hospitalization, encouraging the development of necessary facilities within a community for the care of patients with cancer in hospitals and other facilities, occupational and recreational therapy, rehabilitation, assisting in the process of restoration of the patient as a functioning social and economic unit (preferably returning the patient to his original occupation so far as practical), transportation, assisting patients to doctors’ offices, hospital outpatient clinics, referring specific inquiries directly to the family physicians or through County Medical Societies to appropriate physicians within the area, providing home care and home nursing services for medically indigent patients with cancer	-
	The American College of Surgeons, the Cancer Detection Center, the National Cancer Institute. United States of America (USA)	Surgeons, physicians, nurses, social services		Providing care in own profession
Timothy [30]	The ‘reach to Recovery Program’ of the American Cancer Society	Former mastectomy patients recruited by the American Cancer Society	Services provided by volunteers at the hospital, dedicated to helping the woman who just had breast surgery	Volunteers visit the mastectomy patient in the hospital or the clinic within 3–6 days following her operation, give patients a booklet (summarizing the useful information gathered over the years) and a temporary lightweight prosthesis, and answer non-medical questions of patients	The Reach to Recovery Program is implemented in multiple European countries such as France, Belgium, Switzerland, Ireland, Sweden, Iceland, Finland, Denmark, Norway, England, Luxembourg, Spain
	Hospitals and clinics in USA, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Ireland, Sweden, Iceland, Finland, Denmark, Norway, England, Luxembourg, Spain	Hospital staff		Providing care in own profession
Witter [31]	Volunteers recruited by the St. Joseph’s Oncology Unit in Houston, USA	Individuals that were prompted by the recruiting efforts, with medical interests, a cancer-related trauma, or a desire to help	Services provided by volunteers in the St. Joseph’s Oncology Unit	Services include: providing support for the patients, the families, and the staff, assisting with meal trays, taking messages from patients, visiting patients, shampooing patients, making beds, running to the pharmacy, and providing recreation and diversion by painting, singing and, running the bingo games	-
	Healthcare professionals of St. Joseph’s Oncology Unit in Houston, USA	Physician, nurse, psychotherapist, laboratory technician, physiotherapist, clergyman, social service worker, dietitian, aide, and occupational therapist		Providing care in own profession
Garrison [45]	The ‘oncology outreach program’ Junior League of Toledo	Individuals with the following qualifications: mature, compassionate, empathetic, a good listener, well informed regarding general oncology and patient needs, resourceful, reliable, flexible in accepting the values of others, general good health and emotional stability, able to provide own transportation and accept mandatory attendance at the training sessions	Services provided by volunteers of the Junior League of Toledo in the home setting of cancer patients to facilitate a smooth transition from hospital to home	Services such as arranging an in-hospital meeting to explain the program and exchange telephone numbers, making a general assessment of the former patient’s situation at home, checking that stipulated services are being provided, listening empathetically to the patient and family members, verifying that the resources specified in the patient’s record are available	Patients Most patients who have received the service have agreed to continue it when they were readmitted and discharged a second time from the hospital. Patients adjusted to their homes with greater ease and security. Most important was the fact that patients and their families realized that the hospital and community care about them as a whole unit in their environment Volunteers Volunteer job satisfaction was assessed at the volunteers’ monthly support meetings. Volunteers’ evaluation of the program was excellent, and those who have been active participants have found the service they provided to be a rewarding experience
	Flower hospital in Sylvania, USA	Hospital staff, e.g., social workers and volunteer coordinators		Providing care in own profession and train and coordinate volunteers
Fusco-Karmann [32]	The “Voluntary Service program” of the Italian League Against Cancer	Individuals that had no personal experience with cancer	The “Voluntary Service program” is a program in which volunteers gave their support to patients in consulting rooms and hospital departments or along with teams of home palliative care. In 1994, the group of volunteers consists of 700 units: 240 are active in various oncologic hospital departments or consulting rooms (including two hospices), and 250 follow patients at home. The remaining volunteers work in the area of prevention and fundraising	Services such as: psychosocial support, support for families, help in socializing, help for information, help in transport, external errands, spiritual support, note social and economic problems, diverting activities, help in nourishment, and help in cooking and housekeeping at home	Patients A high quota of patients gave a very positive opinion (‘much’ or ‘very much’) on the importance of the presence of volunteers in the hospital (76%) and at home (90%). In the second case, volunteers were particularly useful to improve a patient's mood (80%) and to solve practical problems (47%). Home volunteers were considered more useful than hospital volunteers in every topic investigated, particularly in enlightening spirit (80% home vs 32% hospital) Volunteers and nurses General agreement was noted among nurses and volunteers on the activity of the latter. To the item psychosocial support, a score of 7 to 10 was given by 60% of the nurses and by 82% of the hospital volunteers. At home, respectively 80% and 89% gave such a score. In the comparison between hospital and home environments, a greater number of nurses and volunteers experienced the benefit of hospital volunteers in giving information and in pointing out problems of social and economic matters, and of home volunteers in giving psychosocial support to patients' families
	Milan National Cancer Institute, Italy	Hospital staff		Providing care in own profession
Edgar [33]	A voluntary support system called ‘Hope and Cope’, an independent organization	Volunteers, one-third of whom are cancer survivors, while the rest have a family member or friend as a referent	Services provided by volunteers in the Sir Mortimer B. Davis-Jewish General Hospital	Services such as being present during Oncology and Radiation Oncology Clinic hours, companions outside the hospital, includes visits and telephone contact, matching as role-models upon patients’ request, offering Hope and Cope Library Office, transportation to radiotherapy sessions, self-help groups, the cosmetic course ‘Look Good Feel Better’, hospital visiting, bereavement, education such as relaxation techniques and writing a newsletter	All patients and family members (both users and non-users) attending either the oncology out-patient or the radiation oncology clinic were approached. Information about the subjects’ knowledge and use and benefits of Hope and Cope services was measured by a questionnaire on 18 different areas of services in Hope and Cope. Information was elicited about their needs for information, social and emotional support, help with the activities of daily living, help with financial concerns, and assistance with employment issues Patients Ninety patients had used some of the services of Hope and Cope, and 31 had not. Significantly more women than men used Hope and Cope; 80% of the female patients and 50% of the men made use of the services. The results showed that needs for social and emotional support and information were most predominant. The most frequently used services were the volunteers in the oncology and radiotherapy clinics, followed by the library, office volunteers, and Hope and Cope staff. The volunteers’ role was perceived to be that of offering hope, encouragement, understanding, reassurance, and giving information in 86% Family/friends The most used services were volunteers in the radiotherapy and oncology clinics, the library, self-help groups, office volunteers, and volunteers to listen. The needs of family members/friends mirrored those of the patients. The most frequent suggestions for improvement were to visit hospitalized patients as soon as possible after the diagnosis and to help patients learn about services earlier
	Sir Mortimer B. Davis-Jewish General Hospital in Montreal, Canada	Professional staff, e.g., social workers		Hope and Cope staff: train the volunteers, screen referrals and match them with some aspect of voluntary support and provide support for the volunteers
Jones [44]	The Princess Margaret Hospital (PMH) Patient education program developed by the departments of Psychosocial Oncology, Volunteer Resources, and Patient Education, and Wellspring	Trained volunteers	The PMH patient education program is an interactive website aimed toward empowering those dealing with cancer by providing information, tools, and support. It is a user-driven site supported by trained volunteers, in which users can move around freely and at their own pace and determine what they want to see	Providing computer assistance to users, managing resources, and supporting patients	During a 6-month pre-launch period, a pilot study was conducted to evaluate the usefulness, ease of use, and format of the program, and to identify any potential errors and weaknesses in the design Patients, family members, and oncology professionals Participants were invited to complete a brief questionnaire in which they provided demographic information and rated and commented on the usefulness and format of the program. 47 users completed the questionnaire, an additional group of 28 users participated in interview sessions. The most commonly identified user problem was confusion during navigation through the program. Users lacking computer and cancer literacy found the assistance of volunteers to be essential for effective navigation. Volunteer support helped them to access the information they ‘would not have accessed otherwise’ and is clearly an essential instructional strategy for the program
	The PMH of the University Network in Toronto, Canada	Healthcare professionals		Recruiting and training volunteers and providing care in own profession
Burton [34]	The volunteer program of The Cancer Council NSW’s Breast Cancer Support Service (BCSS)	Volunteers who have had a diagnosis of breast cancer	The volunteer program harnesses the positive experiences and recovery of volunteers to assist people newly diagnosed with breast cancer	Providing peer support and visiting patients after women had surgery	Volunteers Almost all volunteers agreed that most visits they made were positive and rewarding and that they were able to help women by sharing experiences. Volunteers gained satisfaction in being able to ‘give something back’ after their own experience of breast cancer and felt it was rewarding to let other women know they were not alone Coordinators Coordinators expressed high levels of satisfaction in dealing with volunteers and felt supported in their role by The Cancer Council NSW. With regards to improving the service, several coordinators commented about how they had designed better systems to ensure women were told about the BCSS
	Public and private hospitals in several regions in Australia	Women’s health coordinators, palliative care coordinators, Breast screen nurse counselors, stomal therapists, oncology nurse consultants, and cancer care coordinators		Coordinators match volunteers to new referrals as closely as possible by age, treatment type, social setting, and culture where applicable
Sparks [46]	The ‘Road to Recovery program’ of the American Cancer Society (ACS)	Volunteers, not required to have a prior experience with cancer, volunteer coordinators and ACS staff	An ACS service in which volunteer drivers assist patients with cancer and their families with transportation to treatment facilities and returning them to their homes	Assisting patients with cancer and their families with transportation to treatment facilities	Patients and volunteers were asked questions about experiences, perceived needs, and demographics via a questionnaire, and additionally, some were interviewed Patients Almost all patient respondents (97%) considered Road to Recovery valuable as a means of getting them to their treatment appointments on time, providing them with emotional support, and easing their financial burdens. Many of these patients did express some dissatisfaction about ride availability and the requirement for giving early notice for a ride. Several patients stated that the Road to Recovery program helped to relieve some of the burdens that cancer imposed on members of their families Volunteers The main reasons volunteers gave for volunteering were the desire to help others (48%) and personal experiences with cancer. When asked what volunteers enjoyed most, 80% enjoyed helping patients with cancer, and 19% said that they just liked talking with patients. Almost 8% wanted to help the ACS. Satisfaction with the program was generally high, there were some complaints and the most common suggestion to reduce dissatisfaction was that the ACS should recruit more volunteer drivers
	The mid-Atlantic Division of the ACS and cancer treatment centers and hospitals within the region, USA	Medical providers and social workers		Providing care in own profession and making transportation referrals
Turner [35]	Healing Partners	The training is open to all health care professionals and to lay individuals	Healing Partners pairs women diagnosed with breast cancer with Healing Touch volunteers who provide free, weekly sessions for six months of energy work, in spaces of Stanford Center for Integrative Medicine, area YMCAs, and medical and bodywork offices Administrative and financial support are also received from Stanford	Healing Touch is a gentle, non-invasive form of energy-balancing work that promotes deep relaxation. It is offered as an adjunct to conventional cancer treatment	Patients Healing Partners participants often cite the experience of deep relaxation as one of the most valuable effects of their Healing Touch sessions. For some participants, the Healing Partners session is one hour each week when they have permission to let go of the stress related to the discomfort, logistics, and uncertainty of their diagnosis and treatment. Some report a reduction of physical symptoms, increased ease of tolerating procedures, and recovery from surgery more rapid than expected Volunteers Volunteers receive great benefits, as well, from their participation in the program. Working with their partner enables them to use their skills in a way that will truly make a difference in someone’s life
	Stanford Center for Integrative Medicine in Palo Alto, USA			-
Nissim [36]	The Healing Beyond the Body (HBB) program developed by the Department of Psychosocial Oncology and Palliative Care at PMH of the University Health Network in Toronto, Canada	Volunteers, not required to have a prior experience with cancer	A patient-support volunteer program at the Princess Margaret Hospital of the University Network in Toronto Canada	Volunteers provide basic psychosocial support to patients and their families during their hospital visits, facilitate support for non-medical needs, assist in liaison between patients and staff, and facilitate early identification of patients and their informal caregivers who may require professional psychosocial services	Patients Participants were ‘overwhelmingly’ positive about volunteers serving in supportive care roles. They found HBB volunteers more approachable and less busy than clinicians and nurses and easier to access. They perceived that the HBB volunteers were specifically there to support the patients, without having other clinical responsibilities, which meant that they were able to be more responsive to patients’ non-medical needs. The following themes were identified with semi-structured interviews concerning perceived benefits by patients of the HBB volunteer support service: (1) a sense of humanization and normalization; (2) a sense of security; (3) support for nonmedical needs; and (4) support for unaccompanied patients While no negative experiences with the HBB volunteers were reported, potential weaknesses of the HBB volunteer service were identified: (1) a limited awareness by patients of the HBB volunteers’ roles and responsibilities; and (2) the lack of a structured role definition for the HBB volunteers at the pre-treatment phase
	The Princess Margaret Hospital (PMH) of the University Network in Toronto, Canada	Social workers, nurses, and clinicians		Two social workers who are responsible for the screening, training, providing support for volunteers, and supervision of HBB volunteers
Jasperse [37]	The ‘Living Well Cancer Education and Support Program’ offered by the Cancer Society of New Zealand (CSNZ)	Prospective facilitators of which the majority have a health professional background. Some are former cancer patients. Facilitators can either be volunteers or formally contracted staff members of the CSNZ	The CSNZ provides the program for patients and their supporters in all divisions of New Zealand except Auckland	Providing information on cancer, facilitate informed decision making with respect to disease and side effect management, empower patients to ask the right questions of health professionals and allow patients to gain a measure of control over their situation and maintain that self-efficacy	(Volunteer) facilitators Seventeen facilitators participated in the evaluation. All respondents expressed satisfaction with the content and delivery of the training program. The majority discussed the importance of attending ongoing training. The pairing of more experienced staff and volunteers to co-facilitate was a particularly successful aspect of the program. The majority (12/17) of participants discussed their desire to make a meaningful contribution to their community. The main drawbacks were limited access to support, lack of supervision, and a perceived lack of appreciation from the organization for the volunteer facilitators
	The CSNZ	Employees of the CSNZ: health professionals such as nurses, social workers, and field officers		Pair up with volunteer facilitators, provide care in own profession
Moulton [38]	‘Woman to Woman’ (WtW) is a peer to peer Gynecologic Oncology Support Program initiated by a survivor of ovarian cancer, the Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Science, and the Department of Social Work Services of the Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City, USA	Survivors of gynecologic cancers	A professionally-led, peer to peer support program for women with gynecologic cancer at The Mount Sinai Hospital	WtW is committed to addressing the psychosocial needs of women with gynecologic cancers and their families. It provides service such as: giving information and crucial resources on treatment, providing empathic support, following up contact with patients with phone calls or e-mails during treatment, following patients to whom they are matched throughout treatment, visiting them in the inpatient floors, outpatient chemotherapy and radiation centers and at the gynecologic oncology outpatient clinic, system navigation, coordinate care with professional staff, providing practical information on hospital organization, accompanying patients to doctor’s appointments and diagnostic testing, financial support for out of pocket expenses incurred during treatment, including transportation costs, payment of treatment-related bills, wigs, and other treatment-related needs (WtW Patient Fund), planning and implementing educational conferences, public speaking and writing a bi-annual newsletter	Patients Women were telephone surveyed about their experiences with WtW and their perceptions of the effectiveness of the program, strengths, and weaknesses of the program, and how the program met their psychosocial needs The results suggest that the WtW program helped the majority of women cope emotionally with the new cancer diagnosis (98%) and treatment (96%) and helped manage anxiety and fear about receiving a cancer diagnosis (96%). The volunteers provided hope for the possibility of a positive treatment outcome (98%), a needed source of additional support and understanding through their shared cancer experiences (95%), and practical advice and suggestions about managing the physical side effects of treatment (93%). The WtW program also decreased feelings of being alone while facing the cancer experience (93%). Fewer respondents, however, found that WtW helped with communication with a partner (42%), friends or relatives (66%) regarding diagnosis and treatment, helped with supporting the women’s own care network (60%), or provided financial resources (28%)
	The Mount Sinai Hospital in New York City, USA	Medical and social work staff with experience in gynecologic cancer		Screen volunteers and provide monthly meetings to monitor the emotional health of the volunteers, counsel patients when the volunteer is unable to continue her work, and raise additional funds
Lorhan [39]	The Volunteer Services Department of BC Cancer Agency, Vancouver Island Centre (BCCA-VIC), Canada	Volunteers	Volunteers of the BCCA-VIC lay navigation program at the BC Cancer Agency, Vancouver Island Centre to provide patients undergoing treatment. Volunteers work in concert with the staff team to meet the emotional-, practical-, and informational needs of patients	Providing direct support to patients. The responsibilities of these positions included greeting patients, assisting with navigation through the center, offering companionship in waiting rooms and during treatment, assisting with patient education, and offering therapeutic touch and relaxation therapy	Patients’ demographics, interviews with cancer patients currently undergoing treatment, and three focus groups were used. Patients, volunteers, and staff all agreed that volunteers enhance the patient experience, specifically by working with professionals to meet patients’ emotional, practical, and informational needs. Physical needs were indirectly met by guiding patients to the appropriate personnel Patients Companionship helped to ease patient anxiety and provided a social connection. Patients were able to obtain the information they were looking for through staff and volunteers at the cancer center Practical support was identified as a key benefit of volunteer support in patient interviews and all three focus groups as they would not have to worry about practical issues as the volunteers would take care of them Volunteers and staff Volunteers noted that there was a sense of comfort and safety that the patients experienced. Volunteers noted that they often needed to spend time with patients reviewing the information they received and pointing out available services. Staff emphasized the importance of volunteers easing the stress of patients while they waited in the waiting room; the volunteers eased anxiety by giving patients personal attention
	BC Cancer Agency, Vancouver Island Centre (BCCA-VIC), Canada	Community representatives and BCCA-VIC healthcare staff members: community nurse manager, clinic manager, clerk, radiation therapist, counselor, dietician, and a clinic nurse		Providing care in own profession
Loprinzi Brauer [40]	The ‘Pink Ribbon Mentorship Program’ of the Mayo Volunteer Services	Breast cancer survivors	A one-on-one peer mentorship program in the Mayo Clinic Comprehensive Cancer Center to provide support to newly diagnosed breast cancer patients	Volunteers that are called ‘mentors’ provide emotional and informational support to individual patients and their caregivers They work closely with health care providers to provide comprehensive support to newly diagnosed breast cancer patients during all phases of their care and survivorship	Patients The survey assessed patient perceptions of the program and consisted of items to rate the satisfaction of the breast cancer patients and mentors. They found that the patients had an overall positive experience and were quite satisfied with the one-on-one peer support program. The majority of patients reported that they received support from the mentor, related well to their mentor, that their mentor affected their breast cancer journey in a positive way, and that they were comfortable discussing their cancer with their mentor Volunteers Approximately one-third of the mentors indicated that being a mentor brought up distressing thoughts about their own cancer. However, the results from the survey also show that mentors are very satisfied with their participation in the mentorship program and that the mentors believe that they benefited from participation
	The Mayo Clinic Comprehensive Cancer Center Rochester, USA	Health care providers		The mentors are trained by, and function under, Mayo Volunteer Services
Borregaard [41]	An initiative by the Cardiothoracic and Vascular surgery department of the Odense University Hospital	A former lung cancer patient	An initiative from the Odense University Hospital with the aim of providing an opportunity for admitted lung cancer patients to exchange experiences with a former patient once every week	Providing emotional and informational support by sharing experiences, problems, and thoughts with patients, and answering non-medical questions	Patients Demographics and answers to open-ended questions were obtained on nine patients. Patients experienced that exchanging emotional thoughts was easier with a peer, talking to a peer reduced loneliness and patients felt that they were the main person in the conversation with a peer. Sharing stories about having similar symptoms and undergoing similar journeys predominated, and the key feature of the contact between patients was the commonality of their stories Volunteer The volunteer stated that the positive impact worked both ways. He benefited by feeling that his contribution had been of some significance to the patients and, in that sense, it worked both ways
	The Odense University Hospital, Denmark	Health care professionals such as nurses and doctors		The nurses informed the patients about the former patient’s disease and also that he was not a member of staff and thereby was able to discuss issues other than those related to professional health care. Posters were put up around the department to inform patients about the initiative
Ervik [42]	A cancer support center, known as Vardesenter (VS)	Volunteers, one cancer nurse and one assistant	A Vardesenter where visitors may receive information, support, and counseling, take part in activities, meet peers or just find some peace and rest, at the UNN	-	Visiting cancer patients and relatives were asked questions about demographics and experiences, reasons, and expectations for attending the Vardesenter Patients The majority of visitors to the VS were women, and breast cancer was the most frequent diagnosis. ‘To meet others in the same situation’ was the most frequent reason for visiting the center. Visitors wanted better access to peers with a cancer diagnosis, a nurse specialized in cancer care, an oncologist, or volunteers. Four out of five people were very satisfied with their visit to the center and visitors regarded the center both as an integrated and a complementary part of the healthcare system and wanted a cancer care center to be established in their local community
	The University Hospital of North Norway (UNN) in collaboration with the Norwegian Cancer Society, Norway	Health care professionals such as nurses and doctors		Providing care in own profession
Pitcher [43]	Bridge of Support (BoS) program offered by Counterpart, a state-wide Service in Victoria, Australia	Peer support volunteers, who have themselves experienced breast or gynecological cancer, and BoS program coordinators	The BoS program provides services at the Sunshine Hospital	Providing supportive care and referring to current evidence-based information to assist them with their decision-making. Program coordinators liaise with health service staff and the peer support volunteers to connect women with a volunteer	The perspectives and experiences of women, volunteers, and health service staff were measured by collecting and analyzing program users’ demographic and service use data, and self-administered questionnaires Patients Most women reported positive experiences with the volunteers, including that it was helpful to have someone to talk to (91.8%), especially someone who had been through what they were going through (89.8%), and that volunteers helped to increase their understanding of what to expect in terms of treatment and side effects (79.6%). Women found their contacts with volunteers particularly useful in terms of giving them hope, knowing there was someone who understood what they were experiencing and with whom they could share their experiences, and having someone to listen to them Volunteers All volunteers believed that women benefitted from the information they were able to give them and sharing their experiences. They had received adequate training to undertake their role. None of the volunteers reported that being in the hospital environment was confronting or made it difficult to provide peer support to women Health service staff Most staff reported that they were confident referring women to a peer support volunteer at the hospital and did not believe there were any barriers to referring women
	The Western Health’s Sunshine Hospital in Melbourne, Victoria	Health service staff		Providing care in own profession