Table 4.
Functional ingredients from cruciferous vegetables in gastrointestinal tract and associated cancers.
| Gastrointestinal cancer types | Functional ingredients | Study model | Doses | Findings | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gastric cancer | Curcumin | In vitro (SGC7901, BGC823, MGC803 and MKN1 cell line) | 50–100 μM | Efficient chemo sensitizing effect and also inhibits viability, proliferation, and migration of gastric cancer cells mainly | (137) |
| Quercetin | Human model | 3.89–6.02 mg/day | Inhibited cell growth and induced apoptosis, necrosis, and autophagy | (121) | |
| Allicin | In vitro (SGC-7901 cancer cells) | 15–120 μg/ml | Apoptotic activity | (112) | |
| β-carotene | Human cell line | 0–6.2 μg/dl | Reduced risk of gastric cancer | (113) | |
| Isothiocyanate | Human model | 0.1 μmol/L. | Effective in protecting against gastric cancer, particularly among those who were lack of genes GSTMI (glutathione S-transferase M1) and GSTTI (glutathione S-transferase T1) | (138) | |
| Sulforaphane | Gastric cancer stem cells (CSCs) | 0, 1, 5, 10 μM | Inhibitory action of sulforaphane on gastric CSCs via suppressing Sonic Hh pathway | (139) | |
| Thioredoxin reductase (TR) | Human model | 7.34 U/mL | Threshold of TrxR activity was distinctive in the diagnosis of different tumor types | (140) | |
| Astaxanthin | Human gastric adenocarcinoma cell lines (AGS, KATO-III, MKN-45, and SNU-1) | 0, 10, 50, and 100 μM | Astaxanthin inhibits proliferation by interrupting cell cycle progression in KATO-III and SNU-1 gastric cancer cells | (117) | |
| Benzyl isothiocyanate | AGS human gastric cancer cells | 0, 0.25 and 0.5 mM | Inhibit migration and invasion of human gastric cancer AGS cells | (120) | |
| Small Intestine cancer | Phenyl isothiocyanate | Human model | 0.2–25 mmol/L | Isothiocyanate exposure may reduce the risk of colorectal cancer | (114) |
| Thioredoxin reductase (TR) | Human model | - | Controls cell development by providing the reducing power for p53 and the redox cycling of endogenous antioxidants | (141) | |
| Sulforaphane | GC cell lines | 0–22.5 μM | Role in p53 stabilization and nuclear localization | (142) | |
| Astaxanthin | Small intestine carcinoma cell lines | 0, 10, 50, and 100 μM | Interrupting cell cycle progression | (117) | |
| Curcumin | Mice model | 1,000 mg/kg | Suppressed Nrf2-Dependent Genes in Small Intestine | (143) | |
| Quercetin | Mice model | 2% in diet | Anti-tumor activity in the small intestine | (144) | |
| Benzyl isothiocyanate (BITC) | Rat Model | 400 P.P.M | Promising chemopreventive agents for human intestinal neoplasia | (145) | |
| Sulforaphane | Mice model | 300 and 600 p.p.m. | Developed significantly less and smaller polyps with higher apoptotic and lower proliferative indices in their small intestine | (146) | |
| Colon cancer | Isothiocyanate | Colon cancer cell lines | 2.5 mM | Block the (PI3K)/AKT-dependent survival pathway of colon cancer cell lines, while stimulating the p53 pathway | (116) |
| BITC | HCT-116 cells | 50 μM | Capable of ameliorating the inflammation associated with colon cancer | (116) | |
| Sulforaphane | HCT116 colon cancer cells | DNA repair protein causes DNA damage in colon cancer cells | (123) | ||
| PEITC | HT29 colon cancer cells | 10–50 μM | Have anti-metastatic and anti-inflammatory effects against colon cancer | (147) | |
| 3,3′-diindolylmethane (DIM) | Colon cancer HT29 cells | 100 μM | Cytotoxic effects | (148) | |
| β-carotene | Human models | - | Increase Bax and P53 levels in malignant colon cells while decreasing Bcl-2 levels | (149) | |
| Astaxanthin | HCT-116 colon cancer cells | 5–25 μg/ml | Increase of p53, p21WAF-1/CIP-1 and p27 expression (220, 160, 250%, respectively) was observed, concomitantly with a decrease of cyclin D1 expression (58%) and AKT phosphorylation (21%). | (150) | |
| Bixin | CRC cell lines | 0-80 μM | Inhibit the CRC cell proliferation and survival | (111) | |
| β-cryptoxanthin | Human models | - | Enhances the antitumoral activity of oxaliplatin through δnp73 negative regulation in colon cancer | (151) | |
| Lycopene | Colon cancer HT-29 cells | 2, 5, 10 μM | Inhibited cell proliferation in human colon cancer HT-29 cells | (115) | |
| Hepatic and Pancreatic cancer | Bixin | Hep3B cell | 5-50 μg/ml | Cell growth inhibition | (110) |
| Quercetin | PANC-1 | 0, 10, 25, 50, 100, or 200 μM | Shows significant pro-apoptotic effects | (152) | |
| Curcumin | Hepatic cancer human models | - | Inhibited MMP-9 secretion in HCC (CBO140C12) cells, and repressed the adhesion and migration of fibronectin and laminin | (153) | |
| β-cryptoxanthin | Human models | - | Decreased significantly with increased prevalence of Leiden mutation (as a genetic factor) in patients before the clinical manifestation of histologically different GI cancer | (154) | |
| Lycopene | Hep3B human hepatoma c | - | Induced G0/G1 arrest and S phase block and inhibited cell growth in a dose-dependent manner by almost 40% | (155) | |
| Astaxanthin | HepG2 hepatoma cells | 25 and 42 μM | Arrest induction at G0/G1 phase | (156) | |
| Fucoxanthin | Mice models | 488.8 mg Fx/kg bw | Mediates the suppression of the CCL21/CCR7 axis, BTLA, tumor microenvironment, epithelial mesenchymal transition, and adhesion | (124) | |
| Isothiocyanate sulforaphane | MIA PaCa-2 and PANC-1. | 10 μmol/L sulforaphane. | Sulforaphane Suppressed Growth and Triggered Activation of Caspase-3- and Caspase-8-Dependent Cell Death | (157) | |
| BITC | Mice model | 0.5 μmol/L in plasma | BITC-treated mice showed 43% less tumor growth | (158) |