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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2023 Sep 1.
Published in final edited form as: Expert Rev Clin Immunol. 2022 Jul 28;18(9):947–960. doi: 10.1080/1744666X.2022.2105697

Table 1.

Biomarkers for severe SARS-CoV-2 infection

Study Biomarkers Mechanism of
action of the
makers		 Levels
in
patients
with
COVID-
19		 Levels
in the
control
group		 p-value Method of
Collection
Giron et al, 2021 Zonulin Zonulin increases the permeability of the intestinal epithelium barrier and blood-brain barrier by modifying tight junctions and the underlying actin cytoskeleton. 50 ng/ml 0 ng/ml 4.96e-7 Serum blood
Rossi et al, 2021 TMPRSS2/ACE2 TMPRSS2 is found on the intestinal epithelium that plays an important role in the activation and cell entry of SARS-CoV-2 0.63 0.33 <0.05 RT-qPCR from nasopharyngeal swab
Thomas et al, 2020 Tryptophan Tryptophan is involved in the kynurenine pathway to synthesize nicotinamide, which is involved in the mTOR pathway in the intestinal epithelium. This is responsible for transcribing antimicrobial peptides 2.0 x 10-7 4.0 x 10-7 < 0.001 Serum blood
Lee et al, 2020 IL-17 IL-17 leads to endothelial dysfunction, intestinal dysbiosis, release of cytotoxic immune cell, and chemokine production in the brain tissue leading to neuroinflammation 1.225 pg/mL 0.126 pg/mL < 0.00001 Serum blood