Table 1.

Nongenetic factors in PD

Risk Factors with certainty in linkage (Das et al. 2011; Rizek et al. 2016; Tysnes and Storstein 2017; Calne et al. 2022)

Gender

Age

Hereditary (Presence of first-degree relative)

Environmental factors

Risk factors with positive linkage (Martino et al. 2017)

Head Injury

Rural living

Mental health issues (anxiety/depression)

Pesticide poisoning/consumption

Dairy product consumption

Risk factors with questionable linkage (Liu et al. 2012; Qi 2014; Breckenridge et al. 2016)

Physical inactivity

Smoking

Coffee/alcohol consumption

Increase in uric acid concentration