Table 1.
Median Odds Ratio for the Hierarchical Age-Period Estimates of Period Effects of Loneliness Among 8th, 10th, and 12th Graders in the Monitoring the Future Study, 1991–2019a
| Not Adjusting for Self-Reported Frequency of Attaining ≥7 Hours of Sleep Nearly Every Day or Every Day | Adjusting for Self-Reported Frequency of Attaining ≥7 Hours of Sleep NearlyEvery Day or Every Day | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Subgroup | Variance Parameter Estimate | 95% CI | MOR | Variance Parameter Estimate | 95% CI | MOR |
| Overall | 0.091 | 0.057, 0.171 | 1.157 | 0.015 | 0.009, 0.032 | 1.066 |
| Sex | ||||||
| Girls | 0.175 | 0.109, 0.328 | 1.223 | 0.044 | 0.026, 0.092 | 1.114 |
| Boys | 0.058 | 0.035, 0.113 | 1.126 | 0.014 | 0.008, 0.031 | 1.065 |
| Race/ethnicity | ||||||
| Black | 0.062 | 0.035, 0.138 | 1.142 | 0.013 | 0.006, 0.059 | 1.082 |
| White | 0.094 | 0.058, 0.178 | 1.161 | 0.019 | 0.011, 0.042 | 1.076 |
| Hispanic | 0.119 | 0.070, 0.248 | 1.194 | 0.028 | 0.013, 0.092 | 1.110 |
| Other race or ethnicity | 0.096 | 0.056, 0.207 | 1.176 | 0.003 | 0.001, 36.648 | 1.068 |
| Parental education | ||||||
| Less than college | 0.122 | 0.074, 0.235 | 1.187 | 0.02 | 0.011, 0.048 | 1.081 |
| College or more | 0.076 | 0.047, 0.146 | 1.144 | 0.016 | 0.009, 0.037 | 1.071 |
Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval; MOR, median odds ratio.
a MORs were interpreted as the odds ratio of the internalizing symptoms between 2 individuals who have the same individual-level covariates but in different periods or cohorts. Therefore, a larger period (cohort) MOR indicates that 2 individuals with different loneliness measures are more likely to be from different periods (i.e., birth cohorts), suggesting stronger period (cohort) effects. Models also were adjusted for sex (male vs. female), race/ethnicity (non-Hispanic White, non-Hispanic Black, Hispanic, other race or ethnicity), parental education (either parent had some college or less vs. completed college or more, as reported by the adolescent), grade point average (B– or less vs. B or higher), survey implementation technique (paper vs. tablet), and past-year cannabis/alcohol/other drug use. Drugs in the “other substance use” category varied by grade: For 12th graders, we included lysergic acid diethylamide, other hallucinogens, cocaine, amphetamines, sedatives, tranquilizers, heroin, narcotics, crack, and other forms of cocaine. For 8th and 10th graders, we did not include heroin, narcotics, or sedatives.