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. 2022 Aug 9;13:945063. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.945063

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Copyright © 2022 Kokubo, Onodera, Kiuchi, Tsuji, Hirahara and Nakayama

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Alarmins that induce Th2 cell development in non-lymphoid tissues. When airway epithelial tissues are damaged by helminth infections, house dust mites, or air pollution, the damaged epithelial cells release alarmins (e.g., thymic stromal lymphoid neoplastic factor [TSLP], interleukin [IL]-25, and IL-33). TSLP activates local dendritic cells to secrete CC chemokine ligand 22 (CCL22) and CCL17, which promote the development of type 2 helper T (Th2) cells. IL-25 induces the production of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13 from antigen-presenting cells (APCs), resulting in the promotion of Th2 cell development. IL-33 also promotes Th2 cell development by inducing the production of Th2 cytokines from mast cells. In addition, Dickkopf-related protein 1, which is a Wnt antagonist released from platelets at the site of injury, can similarly promote Th2 cell development. TCR, T cell receptor. This figure was created with BioRender.com.