Table 1.

Material use in various batteries, adopted from (Australian Battery Recycling Initiative 2022)

Battery type	Acronym	Cathode material	Anode material	Electrolyte	Example recycling process/technology
Alkaline-primary (single use)		Manganese dioxide	Zinc	Aqueous alkaline or potassium hydroxide	Carbothermic process for recovering high-value zinc/zinc oxide (Zn/ZnO) powder (Mukhlis et al. 2021), catalysts-based total oxidation of hydrocarbons (acid treatment) (Park et al. 2021)
Lead-acid	ULAB	Lead dioxide	Lead	Sulfuric acid	Hydrometallurgical and pyrometallurgical processes (Yanamandra et al. 2022)
Li-Ion	Li-ion	Metal oxides of cobalt, nickel, iron, aluminum, or manganese	Carbon	Lithium salt in a solvent such as (organic, solid ceramic, ionic fluid, composites, or other types of solvent)	Mechanical treatment, pyrometallurgy, or hydrometallurgy (Sommerville et al. 2021)
Nickel–cadmium	NiCd	Nickel oxyhydroxide	Cadmium	-	Chemical recycling of cadmium (Saleh et al. 2021), pyro-and hydrometallurgical processes (Blumbergs et al. 2021)
Nickel metal hydride	NiMH	Nickel oxyhydroxide	Hydrogen-absorbing alloy	Potassium hydroxide	Hydrothermal, NMP dissolving, bioleaching treatment, acid leaching (Pradhan et al. 2021)