Table 1.
Full sample and KUD group characteristics, past 30-day drug use, KUD lifetime and current severity, kratom quit attempts, and specific KUD symptoms endorsed
| Current KUD (N=38) 29.5% | Remitted± KUD (N=23) 17.8% | Never KUD (N=68) 52.7% | Full Sample (N=129) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
| |||||||||
| % | M ± SD | % | M ± SD | % | M ± SD | % | M ± SD | p value | |
|
| |||||||||
| Age (years) | 100.0 | 33.7 ± 6.9 | 100.0 | 33.5 ± 8.7 | 100.0 | 35.9 ± 9 | 100.0 | 34.8 ± 8.4 | 0.291 |
| Age of kratom use initiation (years) | 100.0 | 28.9 ± 8 | 100.0 | 27.4 ± 8.8 | 100.0 | 31.5 ± 9 | 100.0 | 29.9 ± 8.8 | 0.091 |
| Female | 34.2 | 43.5 | 64.7 | 51.9 | 0.007 | ||||
| White | 65.8 | 60.9 | 73.5 | 79.1 | 0.328 | ||||
| High School graduate | 42.1 | 39.1 | 38.2 | 40.3 | 0.763 | ||||
| Past-year full or part-time employment | 57.9 | 78.3 | 64.7 | 68.2 | 0.532 | ||||
| History of drug overdose, excluding alcohol | 26.3 | 17.4 | 22.1 | 22.5 | 0.568 | ||||
| Ever received or sought treatment for a substance use disorder, including alcohol | 47.4 | 30.4 | 23.5 | 31.8 | 0.017 | ||||
| Chronic pain cutoff of >3 months of pain, BPI | 34.2 | 43.5 | 38.2 | 38.0 | 0.924 | ||||
| Past-month depression, CES-D-R-10 (0–30)1 | 15.2 ± 6.2 | 14.5 ± 5.8 | 12.8 ± 7.4 | 13.8 ± 6.9 | 0.210 | ||||
| Past-month anxiety, GAD-7 (0–21)2 | 9.5 ± 5.4 | 10.3 ± 5.3 | 9.4 ± 6.3 | 9.6 ± 5.8 | 0.829 | ||||
| Substance use, past 30 days | |||||||||
| Kratom | 65.8 | 17.8 ± 12.5 | 17.4 | 6.1 ± 10.3 | 39.7 | 7.5 ± 10.9 | 43.4 | 11.1 ± 12.4 | < 0.001 |
| E-cigarettes | 42.1 | 18.7 ± 13.5 | 34.8 | 6.9 ± 10.9 | 29.4 | 13.1 ± 13.8 | 34.1 | 13.5 ± 13.6 | 0.172 |
| Alcohol | 73.7 | 8.8 ± 9.1 | 73.9 | 8.8 ± 8.9 | 76.5 | 9.6 ± 9.6 | 75.2 | 9.2 ± 9.3 | 0.808 |
| Cannabis | 60.5 | 12.6 ± 11.2 | 65.2 | 18.1 ± 11.8 | 50.0 | 11.3 ± 12.3 | 55.8 | 12.9 ± 12 | 0.234 |
| Medicinal cannabis | 10.5 | 26.8 ± 3.4 | 17.4 | 27.5 ± 5 | 8.8 | 29.7 ± 0.8 | 10.9 | 28.2 ± 3.2 | 0.591 |
| Cannabidiol | 34.2 | 11.2 ± 11.8 | 47.8 | 12 ± 10.5 | 42.6 | 10 ± 11.1 | 41.1 | 10.7 ± 11.1 | 0.939 |
| Nonmedical prescription opioids | 15.8 | 3.9 ± 5.6 | 26.1 | 6 ± 8.8 | 13.2 | 3.1 ± 7 | 16.3 | 3.9 ± 6.8 | 0.585 |
| Prescription opioids | 13.2 | 14.9 ± 13.8 | 0.0 | 0 ± 0 | 2.9 | 5.2 ± 12.2 | 5.4 | 9.6 ± 13.3 | NA |
| Nonmedical buprenorphine | 5.3) | 1.7 ± 3.6 | 4.3 | 0.5 ± 0.7 | 1.5 | 0 ± 0 | 3.1 | 2 ± 3.5 | NA |
| Prescription buprenorphine | 7.9) | 30 ± 0 | 4.3 | 0 ± 0 | 1.5 | 15 ± 21.2 | 3.9 | 25 ± 12.2 | NA |
| Fentanyl | 0.0 | 0 ± 0 | 4.3 | 0 ± 0 | 2.9 | 0.8 ± 1 | 2.3 | 5.5 ± 12 | NA |
| Powder Cocaine | 5.3 | 1.8 ± 4 | 4.3 | 0.5 ± 0.7 | 0.0 | 0 ± 0 | 2.3 | 0.8 ± 2.6 | NA |
| Crack Cocaine | 0.0 | 0 ± 0 | 4.3 | 2 ± 2.8 | 0.0 | 0 ± 0 | 0.8 | 1.3 ± 2.3 | NA |
| Methamphetamine | 7.9 | 9.5 ± 13.8 | 8.7 | 17 ± 18.4 | 1.5 | 7.5 ± 15 | 4.7 | 10.2 ± 13.8 | NA |
| Nonmedical prescription amphetamine | 13.2 | 4.9 ± 5.8 | 4.3 | 1 ± 1.4 | 5.9 | 3.5 ± 9.3 | 7.8 | 3.8 ± 7.4 | NA |
| Nonmedical benzodiazepines | 21.1 | 8.4 ± 7.9 | 26.1 | 9.2 ± 11.6 | 14.7 | 1.6 ± 2.3 | 18.6 | 4.9 ± 7.3 | NA |
| Prescription benzodiazepines | 21.1 | 13.6 ± 14.3 | 13.0 | 23 ± 12.1 | 11.8 | 12.4 ± 13.9 | 14.7 | 14.2 ± 13.7 | NA |
| Psychedelics | 10.5 | 0.7 ± 1.1 | 8.7 | 1 ± 1 | 7.4 | 0.6 ± 1.1 | 8.5 | 0.7 ± 1 | NA |
|
| |||||||||
| Full Sample (N=129) | |||||||||
| Severity criteria met for ever lifetime Kratom Use Disorder based on DSM-5 checklist. | % | ||||||||
| None (<2 symptoms) | 69.0 | ||||||||
| Mild (2–3 symptoms) | 21.7 | ||||||||
| Moderate (4–5 symptoms) | 0.5 | ||||||||
| Severe (≥6 symptoms) | 0.5 | ||||||||
| Severity criteria met for current (past year) Kratom Use Disorder diagnostic criteria based on DSM-5 checklist | |||||||||
| None (<2 symptoms) | 70.5 | ||||||||
| Mild (2–3 symptoms) | 14.0 | ||||||||
| Moderate (4–5 symptoms) | 7.0 | ||||||||
| Severe (≥6 symptoms) | 8.5 | ||||||||
| Has quit using kratom after a regular period of time | |||||||||
| Never | 48.1 | ||||||||
| At least once | 27.9 | ||||||||
| 2–5 times | 16.3 | ||||||||
| ≥5 times | 7.8 | ||||||||
| Specific DSM-5 SUD symptom items endorsed among persons meeting criteria for lifetime or current KUD | |||||||||
| I used kratom in larger amounts and/or over a longer period than I had intended to. | 45.7 | ||||||||
| I kept using the same amount of kratom, but didn’t feel it as much. | 38.8 | ||||||||
| I needed to use larger amounts of kratom just to feel the same effect. | 33.3 | ||||||||
| I had physical or psychological withdrawal symptoms during times I stopped using kratom. | 33.3 | ||||||||
| I made at least one unsuccessful attempt to cut down or control my kratom use. | 32.6 | ||||||||
| I experienced cravings, strong desires, or urges for the kratom. | 31.8 | ||||||||
| I kept using kratom in order to avoid withdrawal symptoms. | 28.7 | ||||||||
| I kept using kratom despite knowing it was causing or worsening physical or psychological problems for me. | 15.5 | ||||||||
| I spent a great deal of time on activities necessary to get kratom, use the kratom, or recover from kratom’s effects. | 15.5 | ||||||||
| I kept using kratom despite knowing it was causing or worsening social or interpersonal problems for me. | 14.0 | ||||||||
| I gave up or reduced some important social, occupational, or recreational activities because of my kratom use. | 10.9 | ||||||||
| My kratom use repeatedly interfered with my major role obligations (at work, school, or home). | 9.3 | ||||||||
| I repeatedly used kratom in situations where it was physically hazardous. | 8.5 | ||||||||
BPI= Brief Pain Inventory; CES-D-R= Center for Epidemiologic Studies Short Depression Scale; GAD-7= Generalized Anxiety Disorder Scale-7 item.
1
For the CES-D- R-10, a score of 10/30 indicates presence of moderate-severe depressive symptoms.
2
For the GAD-7 total score, cutoffs for clinically significant anxiety are: 5=mild, 10=moderate, and 15=severe.
±“Remitted”= DSM-5 specifier of 12 month continuous period without diagnostic criteria being met.
N/A=Not applicable due to insufficient group size to calculate statistical difference.