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. 2022 Aug 11;16:916822. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2022.916822

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Copyright © 2022 Wang, Li, Zhai, Rong, He, Liu, He and Liu.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Involvement of the pineal gland in the function of taVNS. Showing the effect of taVNS on nociceptive thresholds (A), plasma melatonin concentration (B), and the expression of MT1 in the amygdala (Day 7; C) in Px rats. D, day; the red arrow, CCI, Px, or sham operation; the green up arrow, treatments start; the green down arrow, treatments end; the blue arrow, sacrifice; ShamPx, sham Px operation; Px, pinealectomized; Px/CCI, Px, and CCI; Px/C7d/VS, Px, and CCI operation followed by taVNS treatments 7 days later; Px/CCI/VS, Px, and CCI operation followed by taVNS treatments immediately. *p < 0.05, as compared with the ShamPx group on the same day and the baseline of the same group; #p < 0.05, as compared with Px or Px/CCI groups; and +p < 0.05, as compared with the Px/CCI group.