Table 1. Ophthalmological effects of anti-neoplastic regimens used in the treatment of prostate cancer.

Ophthalmological adverse effects and potential beneficial effects of antitumor agents used in prostate cancer management. Molecular markers in prostate cancer that serve as targets for newer antineoplastic agents, also exist in the human eye. This results not only in ocular side effects, but also in effects that might prove to be useful in the treatment of different ophthalmic conditions. LHRH: luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone, BRVO: branch retinal vein occlusion, PSMA: prostate specific membrane antigen, PARP: poly adenosine diphosphate-ribose polymerase.

Medications	Side effects (frequency)	Beneficial potential
Antiandrogens: LHRH agonists/antagonists (long-term administration)	Dry eye syndrome (frequent), tear film debris (28.6%), irregular lid margin (85.7%), tear film mucous (10.3%), abnormal tear film meniscus (40%), light sensitivity, blurry vision, ocular pain (all together 50%), optic neuritis, cataract development, BRVO, retinal hemorrhages (all rare)	None reported
Second generation antiandrogens: enzalutamide, abiraterone	Blurry vision (rare)	None reported
Chemotherapy: docetaxel	Canalicular stenosis and nasolacrimal duct obstruction: epiphora (7.9%), cystoid macular edema, erosive conjunctivitis, ocular pain, decreased vision, scintillating scotomas, toxic optic neuropathy, uveal effusions (all rare)	None reported
Chemotherapy: cabazitaxel	Optic neuropathy, decreased vision, color vision deficiency, visual field defects (all rare)	None reported
Theranostics: PSMA	Dry eye syndrome (30%)	Angiogenesis inhibitor, treatment of angiogenesis based ocular conditions
PARP inhibitors: Olaparib, Rucaparib, Niraparib	Conjunctivitis (6%), eyelid swelling (unknown), decreased vision (unknown)	Protective role in age-related dry macular degeneration, treatment of photoreceptors in hereditary retinal dystrophies or glaucoma, protective of cataract development