Table 3.

Overview of Practices and Underlying Causes of Stunting Among CU5 in 6 Villages in Nong.

Practices and Underlying Causes of Stunting
Feeding practices	Feeding practices were often inadequate; CU5 did not receive sufficient nutrition in terms of quality and quantity. Traditional feeding practices were prevalent, but less so among PD mothers. Examples of prevalent poor feeding practices that were more prevalent among ND mothers were not giving colostrum, not practicing exclusive breastfeeding for 6 months, and not giving diverse foods to CU5.
Care and hygiene practices	Health-care attendance and vaccinations rates were higher among PD than among ND CU5. Hygiene practices such as washing hands were sufficient among PD and ND mothers, although they had no soap. Boiling water was low among all mothers, although more PD mothers boiled water than ND mothers.
Household environment	The use of spring water, which is irregularly available during seasons, was higher among ND mothers compared to PD mothers.
Household food insecurity and poverty	All mothers were from a poor community, but there was some heterogeneity in the level of poverty; ND mothers tended to be poorer than PD mothers. All mothers experienced food insecurity, but poor households were more food insecure because of having to depend on their own food production. PD households were more often food secure for a longer period of time and got support from cousins and relatives.
Knowledge	Although only 25% of mothers attended school, both PD and ND mothers had good hygiene and sanitation-related knowledge. Knowledge of providing colostrum and nutrient-rich food was below par and especially ND mother’s perceptions about the health of their CU5 were often incorrect: only 10% of the ND mothers thought their child was stunted. The mobile education was effective in improving knowledge among PD mothers, resulting in a more diverse diet.
Motivation and attitude	Differences were seen in motivation between PD and ND mothers with higher motivation among PD mothers resulting in better practices. Differences were seen in several aspects of motivation: caring about their CU5, prioritizing their child’s nutrition, thinking ahead, and a more enterprising attitude among PD mothers. However, both ND and PD mothers emphasized the importance of education.
Gender roles and empowerment	Traditional gender roles were prevalent, all mothers had more tasks than fathers and all mothers were dependent on their child’s father to access health care. However, higher mother’s autonomy and self-efficacy was seen among PD mothers compared to ND mothers.
Social support and time allocation	Social support was important for care and feeding practices. There were differences in perceived support between PD and ND mothers. PD mothers more often lived in an extended family and received more support from family members, such as their partner, compared to ND mothers. Living in extended families was beneficial as the family members could take care of the child when the mother had to go to the field. This support for PD mothers was important for having more food and time to take care of and feed their CU5.