Table 4.
Summary of studies assessing the relationship between wingbeat frequency, amplitude and mechanical power output.
| species | method | flight mode | speed (m s−1) | remarks | source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| pigeon Columba livia | field data—GPS and accelerometer measurements | level, ascending and descending flight, all while circling | 10–18 | as speed increased | Usherwood et al. [6] |
| WBF—varied approx. U shaped | |||||
| WBA—increased | |||||
| at constant speed, as power increased | |||||
| WBF—increased | |||||
| WBA—decreased | |||||
| ascending flight | |||||
| WBF—increased | |||||
| WBA—increased | |||||
| accelerating flight | |||||
| WBF—increased | |||||
| WBA—increased | |||||
| pigeon Columba livia | platform—muscle force measurements and kinematic analysis with high-speed cameras | ascending, level and descending | 1.4–3.9 | in different flight modes | Tobalske & Biewener [30] |
| WBF—did not vary significantly | |||||
| WBA—decreased during take-off and prior to landing | |||||
| common starling Sturnus vulgaris | wind tunnel—respirometry masks and kinematics analysis with high-speed cameras | level flight | 6–14 | as speed increased | Ward et al. [27] |
| WBF—increased (less significant) | |||||
| WBA—increased (less significant) | |||||
| power—increased | |||||
| Eurasian tree sparrow Passer montanus | experiments in flight chamber—kinematics analysis with high-speed cameras | vertical flight | — | as maximum load lifted | Wang et al. [32] |
| WBF—no significant variation | |||||
| WBF—no significant variation | |||||
| barn swallow Hirundo rustica | wind tunnel—energetic costs measured by DLW, and kinematics analysis is by video recordings | level flight | 8–11.5 | as speed increased | Schmidt-Wellenburg et al. [23] |
| WBF—varied as U shaped | |||||
| as mass increased | |||||
| WBF—increased | |||||
| power—increased | |||||
| blue tit Cyanistes caeruleus | flight inside a custom-built box—kinematics analysis with high-speed cameras | take-off | 3.4 | as wing loading increased | McFarlane et al. [58] |
| WBF—decreased | |||||
| WBA—did not vary | |||||
| power—decreased | |||||
| AR—increased | |||||
| thrush nightingale Luscinia luscinia | wind tunnel—PIV and kinematics analysis with high-speed cameras | level flight | 5–10 | as speed increased | Rosén et al. [25] |
| WBF—no significant variation | |||||
| WBA—no significant variation | |||||
| thrush nightingale Luscinia luscinia | wind tunnel—wingbeat frequency measured using a shutter stroboscope and video recording | level flight | 5–16 | as mass increased | Pennycuick et al. [22] |
| WBF—increased | |||||
| as speed increased | |||||
| WBF—varied in U shape (less significantly) | |||||
| zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata | wind tunnel—kinematics analysis with high-speed cameras | intermittent flap-bounding flight | 0–14 | as speed increased | Tobalske et al. [59] |
| WBF—increased (less significant) | |||||
| WBA—decreased (significantly) | |||||
| zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata | surgical procedures to measure flight muscle activity | ? | — | as power increased | Bahlman et al. [60] |
| WBF—no significant effect | |||||
| WBA—increased effectively | |||||
| zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata | wind tunnel—muscle in vivo pectoralis fascicle strain measurements, and kinematics by high-speed video recordings | level flight | 0–14 | as speed increased | Ellerby & Askew [20] |
| WBF—varied approx. U shaped | |||||
| WBA—increased only at hovering | |||||
| budgerigar Melopsittacus undulates | wind tunnel—muscle in vivo pectoralis fascicle strain measurements, and kinematics by high-speed video recordings | level flight | 4–16 | as speed increased | Ellerby & Askew [20] |
| WBF—varied approx. U shaped | |||||
| WBA—did not vary significantly | |||||
| cockatiel Nymphicus hollandicus | wind tunnel—in vivo pectoralis muscle length change measurements | level flight | 0–16 | as speed increased | Morris & Askew [61] |
| power—increased (approx. U shaped) | |||||
| WBF—reduced (highest at the lower range) | |||||
| cockatiel Nymphicus hollandicus | wind tunnel—in vivo surgical procedures and kinematics analysis with high-speed cameras | level flight | 0–14 | as speed increased | Hedrick et al. [21]; Tobalske et al. [19] |
| WBF—reduced at lower speed and increased at higher speed (approx. U shaped) | |||||
| power—varied (approx. U shaped) | |||||
| Eurasian teal Anas crecca | wind tunnel—wingbeat frequency measured using a shutter stroboscope and video recording | level flight | 5–16 | as mass increased | Pennycuick et al. [22] |
| WBF—increased | |||||
| as speed increased | |||||
| WBF—varied in U shape (less significantly) | |||||
| black-legged kittiwake Rissa tridactyla | wild study—kinematics and airspeed data of commuting flights measured using GPS and accelerometer devices | flap–glide flight (predominantly flapping) | 2–16 | as speed increased | Collins et al. [62] |
| WBF—no significant relationship | |||||
| WBA—increased significantly (as proxy by body moving amplitude) | |||||
| Harris's hawk Parabuteo unicinctus | outdoor flight—accelerometery data and kinematic analysis using video recordings | climbing flight | — | as climb power increased | Van Walsum et al. [13] |
| WBF—increased linearly with lesser variation | |||||
| WBA—increased linearly with higher variation (as proxy by body moving amplitude) | |||||
| common swift Apus apus | wind tunnel—PIV and kinematics analysis with high-speed cameras | level flight | 8–9.2 | as speed increased | Henningsson et al. [63] |
| WBF—decreased | |||||
| WBA—increased | |||||
| ruby-throated hummingbird Archilochus colubris | flight experiments in an airtight cube—varying air density treated with heliox | hovering | — | as power increased | Chai & Dudley [64] |
| WBF—increased (less significant) | |||||
| WBA—increased (significantly) | |||||
| as air density decreased | |||||
| power—increased | |||||
| ruby-throated hummingbird Archilochus colubris | flight experiments in an airtight cube—varying air density treated with helium | hovering | — | as power increased | Chai & Dudley [65] |
| WBF—did not vary | |||||
| WBA—increased (significantly) | |||||
| as air density decreased | |||||
| power—increased | |||||
| ruby-throated hummingbird Archilochus colubris | cubic testing arena—surgical procedures to measure flight muscle activity and kinematics analysis with high-speed cameras | hovering | — | as load lifted increased | Mahalingam & Welch [66] |
| WBF—did not vary | |||||
| WBA—increased (significantly) | |||||
| as air density decreased | |||||
| WBF—did not vary | |||||
| WBA—increased (significantly) | |||||
| rufous hummingbird Selasphorus rufus | wind tunnel—kinematics analysis with high-speed cameras | hovering and level flight | 0–12 | as speed increased | Tobalske et al. [67] |
| WBF—did not vary | |||||
| WBA—increased (approx. U shaped) |