Table 2.

In vivo effects of yeast β-glucans on the immune systems of different species of freshwater fish.

Yeast Species (Origin)	Β-Glucan Type	Administration Dose and Route	Fish	Pathogen Challenge (Name, Dose, Route and Challenge Day)	Outcomes	Ref.
					(Relative Survival Upon Challenge and Increased Immune Parameters)
Saccharomyces uvarum (β-glucan and whole cells)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	10 g Kg−1 Diet	Cyprinus carpio	Aeromonas hydrophila 1.5 × 106 CFU mL−1	Survival: 77.8% and 71.6%	[31]
S. cerevisiae (bakery, Hang Zhou)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	60 days	Oreochromis niloticus	Intramuscularly 30 and 60 days	Significant increase in white blood cells, NBT, and serum lysozyme activity.	[62]
		21 days		Intra-peritoneal 21 day	Increase in cellular immunological parameters (neutrophil adhesion, macrophage oxidative oxide, lymphocyte transformation index, and phagocytic activity), and humoral parameters (bactericidal activity in serum, lysozyme and NO)
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	0, 0.5, 1 and 2 g Kg−1 Diet	Tinca tinca	Aeromonas hydrophila	The 2 g Kg−1 dose had the lowest mortality after infection	[63]
		30 days		1 × 107 CFU mL−1 Intraperitoneal at day 30	Additionally, increased respiratory burst activity in spleen macrophages, lysozyme activity, and total serum Ig levels
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard® and Betagard A®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	1 g Kg−1 and 0.1 g Kg−1 Diet	Ictalurus punctatus	Edwardsiella ictalurid 9.5 × 106 CFU mL−1	Survival: 56.7% and 46.4%	[64]
		7 and 14 days		Immersion 7 and 14 days	Increase in hematological parameters (% hematocrit, hemoglobin, TCC, RBC, WBC) and immunological parameters (SH50, lysozyme, total plasma protein)
S. cerevisiae (bakery)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	10 mg Kg−1 fish Intraperitoneal	Oreochromis niloticus	Aeromonas hydrophila 1 × 106 CFU mL−1	RPS: 83.3%	[65]
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	Nine days (injection every three days)	Cyprinus carpio	Intraperitoneal nine day	-	[44]
		15 days		Intraperitoneal Sampling 7 day	Increase in total leukocytes and phagocytic activity. Induced expression in CRP (crp1, crp2) and ACP (c1r/s, bf/c2, c3 and masp2)
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	1 g Kg−1 Diet	Channa striata	Aeromonas hydrophila 1 × 107 CFU mL−1	RPS: 61.54%	[66]
		84 days		Intraperitoneal 56 and 84 days 14 days mortality record	Increase of hematological parameters RBC, WBC, PCV, Hb%, VSG, serum protein, and immunological Ig and lysozyme activity
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	10 and 20 g Kg−1 Diet	Cyprinus carpio L.	-		[67]
		56 days		-	Significant increase in localized infiltration of intestinal leukocytes, monocytes, and hematocrit value
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	1–2 g Kg−1 Diet	Oncorhynchus mykiss	Yersinia ruckeri 2 × 108 cells mL−1	RPS: Breeding females diet 2 g Kg−1 (42.2%) and fry diet 1 g/Kg (35.6%)	[68]
		90 days breeding females and 60 days fry		Immersion Sampling 25 days	Increased WBC, ACH-50, lysozyme activity, Ig, IgM
S. cerevisiae (bakery)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	1 g Kg−1 Diet	Pangasianodon hypophthalmus	Edwardsiella ictalurid 8 × 104 CFU mL−1	RPS: 37.7%.	[69]
		28 days		Immersion 28 day 14 days mortality record	Increased phagocytic activity, total IgM,
S. cerevisiae (bakery)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	1 g Kg−1 Diet	Pangasianodon hypophthalmus	Edwardsiella ictaluri 1 × 106 CFU mL−1	RPS: 83%.	[70]
		14 days		Immersion 14 day 24 h of infection	Overall expression of immune genes in the liver, kidney, and spleen
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	1–2 g Kg−1 Diet	Oreochromis niloticus	Streptoccus iniae 2 × 107 CFU mL−1	-	[59]
		21 days		Intraperitoneal Sampling one, three, and seven days	1 g kg−1: induced greater expression of the hsp-70, cxc chemokine, mhc-ii β and mx genes. Presented expression of hsp-70, mhc-ii β, and tlr 7 in the challenged group. 1 g Kg−1: induced expression of vtg, cas, igm-h, gst, il8, tnf-α in the unchallenged and challenged groups. More significant expression of hsp, cxc, and mhc-ii β in the challenged group.
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	1 g Kg−1 Diet	Brycon amazonicus	Aeromonas hydrophila 3.8 × 108 CFU mL−1	-	[71]
		15 days		Sampling 30 min and 24 h	Increased levels of cortisol, serum lysozyme, and complement system
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	2 g Kg−1 Diet	Channa striata	Aeromonas hydrophila 2 × 106 CFU mL−1	Resistance to bacterial infection.	[72]
		112 days immunization 56 days intake		Intraperitoneal 56, 120 and 168 days	Increase in hematological parameters (RBC, WBC, %PCV, Hb) and immunological parameters (Ig, lysozyme).
S. cerevisiae (Zymosan)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	In vitro: 10 µg mL−1 ZF4 cells. In vivo: 5 µg fish Intraperitoneal	Danio rerio	Spring viremia of carp virus In vitro: 1 × 10−3 MOI In vivo: 104 PFU mL−1	RPS: 59.7%	[73]
		In vitro:24 h In vivo:14 days		Immersion 14 day 17 days mortality record	Immunized and challenged + immunized fish showed increased expression of genes il-1b, il-6, il-8, il-10, and tnf-α
S. cerevisiae (bakery, Sigma)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	10 μg fish Intraperitoneal injection	Oreochromis niloticus	Aeromonas veronii 1 × 106 CFU mL−1	Relative survival 25%	[74]
		6, 12 and 24 h		Intraperitoneal 10 days mortality record	Increased hematological parameters. Cellular activity: lymphocytes, monocytes. Humoral activity: Total Ig, bactericidal activity, lysozyme, trypsin inhibition. Gene expression: tlr2, jak-1, nf-kb, il-1β, and tnf-1α.
S. cerevisiae (bakery, BettcanTM)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	1 g Kg−1 Diet	Carassius auratus var. Pengze	-	-	[75]
		70 days		-	Enhanced immunity and antioxidant capacity, increased acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, glutathione peroxidase, reduced glutathione, catalase, and superoxide dismutase activities
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	0.25 g Kg−1 Diet	Cyprinus carpio	Aeromonas hydrophila 5.01 × 108 CFU mL−1	Survival > 50%	[76]
		63 days		Intraperitoneal 64 day 10 days mortality record	Increased lysozyme activity, complements and improves expression of immune genes (nk, lys, and il-8)
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	1 g Kg−1 Diet	Piaractus mesopotamicus	Aeromonas hydrophila 1.5 × 108 CFU mL−1 Inactivated at 50 °C	-	[77]
		15 days		Intraperitoneal Sampling 3 and 24 h	Increased plasma levels of cortisol, complement activity, and reduced numbers of monocytes and lymphocytes in peripheral blood
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	5 g Kg−1 Diet	Piaractus mesopotamicus	Aeromonas hydrophila 1 × 102 CFU mL−1	Increased cortisol, glucose, and CR3 y lysozyme by manipulation and bacterial inoculation.	[78]
		10 days		Intraperitoneal	Promoted inflammatory response in lymphocytes and neutrophils.
S. cerevisiae (brewery Leiber® Beta-S	β-1,3 y β-1,6	10 g Kg−1 Diet + Lactobacillus plantarum (1 × 108 CFU cells mL−1)	Rutilus rutilus	-	Increased nonspecific humoral immunity parameters (lysozyme and total Ig)	[79]
		28 days		-	Cellular (pinocytic activity of phagocytes, respiratory burst)
S. cerevisiae (bakery, BettcanTM)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	2 g Kg−1 Diet	Oncorhynchus mykiss	Aeromonas salmonicida 3 × 105 CFU mL−1	-	[49]
		42 days		Intraperitoneal Sampling four and six days	Differential expression of genes involved in immune or metabolic signaling pathways (fgg, fgb, f5, c9, c3, c5, tlr5, and myd88)
S. cerevisiae (MacroGard®)	β-1,3 y β-1,6	0,1 g kg−1	Oreochromis niloticus	Aeromonas sobria and Streptococcus agalactiae	100% survival in immunized fish for 45 days	[80]
		15, 30 and 45 days		2 × 108 and 1 × 108 CFU mL−1 Intramuscular at day 10	Longer periods of administration of β-glucans increased growth, innate immune activity, and bacterial resistance
S. cerevisiae [BY 4741 strain (G), MacroGard® (M) and wild-type (W)]	β-1,3 y β-1,6	2 and 5 g Kg−1	Oncorhynchus mykiss	Aeromonas salmonicida achromogenes	G (2 and 5 g Kg−1) had the best survival rate	[81]
		15, 30 and 45 days		3.1 × 107 UFC/100 g fish Intraperitoneal day 37	The G represented the best immunostimulant by increasing lysozyme activity, total Ig, and some immune genes (mcsfra, hepcidin) in the short and mid-term
S. cerevisiae M/s Kuber	β-1,3 y β-1,6	5, 10 and 15 g kg−1	Tor putitora	Aeromonas salmonicida	RPS: 20% with diet 10 g kg−1	[82]
		56 days		2.5 × 107 CFU mL−1 Immersion 56 day for 12 h 10 days mortality record	Total antioxidant levels increased, expression of cytokines such as tnf-α, il-1β, defensin1, c3 pre-post-challenge, and antiprotease activity increased only post-challenge