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Various mechanisms of multi-drug resistance in E. coli. The resistance mechanisms and examples of affected antibiotic agents are: (i) efflux pumps: quinolones, tetracyclines, macrolides; (ii) hydrolysis: β-lactams, macrolides; (iii) antibiotic modification: aminoglycosides, macrolides; (iv) drug target modification: aminoglycosides, quinolones, sulfonamides; (v) lipopolysacharide mutations: colistin, aminoglycosides; (vi) porin loss or mutation: β-lactams, quinolones, tetracyclines.
