Table 3.
Pressure Pain Threshold (PPT) Values of Low Back in Volunteers/Patients with and without Low Back Pain (LBP).
| Authors | Object of Study/Subject | Areas of PPT Examination | Device (Units) | PPT Values in Patients/People with Low Back Pain; Mean (±SD) | PPT Values in Healthy Volunteers/Control; Mean (±SD) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Zywien U et al. | 2022 | White-collar workers | Lumbar | FDIX RS232 algometer from Wagner (N/cm2) | Lumbar: 32.93–64.09 | Lumbar: 33.10–64.15 |
| Selva-Sarzo F et al. | 2021 | Chronic LBP | Lumbar | Wagner Force Dial FDK 20 algometer (kgf) | Lumbar: 3.68–6.83 | none |
| Dias LV et al. | 2021 | Chronic LBP | Bilaterally 5 cm from the spinal process of L3 and L5 | Pressure algometer (kgf) (EMG System® of Brazil). |
L3: 3.5–5.2 L5: 3.6–5.3 |
none |
| Nim CG et al. | 2021 | Non-specific LBP | L1 segment L2 segment L3 segment L4 segment L5 segment |
Pressure algometer (kpa) (Model 2, Somedic, Sweden) |
L1 segment: 522 ± 244 L2 segment: 482 ± 228 L3 segment: 472 ± 225 L4 segment: 455 ± 225 L5 segment: 445 ± 229 |
none |
| Mailloux et al. | 2021 | Healthy volunteers | Lumbar erector spinae (LES) 2–3 cm laterally to L4/L5 S1 spinous process |
Handheld digital algometer (kpa) (1-cm2 probe–FPIX, Wagner Instruments, Greenwich, CT, USA) |
none | LES: 547.2–559.7 S1 spinous process: 517.2–536.7 |
| Leemans L et al. | 2020 | Chronic LBP | 2 cm lateral to the L3 spinous process 2 cm lateral to the L5 spinous process Near the poste-rior superior iliac spines (PSIS) |
Digital pres-sure algometer (kgf) (Wagner Force Ten) |
Lower back: 6.7–7.0 | none |
| Nim CG et al. | 2020 | Non-specific LBP | Lumbar | Pressure algometer (kpa) (Model 2, Somedic, Sweden) |
Lumbar (with pain): 488.73 ± 330.95 Lumbar (with stiffness): 436.6 ± 364.9 |
none |
| Volpato MP et al. | 2020 | Chronic non-specific LBP | BL23 (Shenshu) BL24 (Qihaishu) BL25 (Dachangshu) |
Pressure algometer (unknown) (EMG 830C, EMG System, São José dos Campos, Brazil) |
BL23 (Shenshu): 7025–7844 BL24 (Qihaishu): 7258–7285 BL25 (Dachangshu): 6445–7173 |
none |
| Wang-Price S et al. | 2020 | LBP | Lumbar | Hand-held computerized pressure algometer (kpa) (Medoc Ltd., Ramat Yishai, Israel) |
Lumbar: 383.4 ± 185.5 | none |
| Vaegter HB et al. | 2020 | LBP | Erector spinae muscle | Manual pressure algometry (kpa) (Somedic Sales AB) |
Erector spinae muscle: 450–586 | none |
| Fagundes Loss J et al. | 2020 | LBP | Spinal Process/Erector | 10 kgf analogic pressure algometer (kgf) (Wagner Instruments, Greenwich, CT-USA) |
Spinal Process: 6.1–7.0 Erector: 6.8–7.2 |
none |
| Plaza-Manzano G et al. | 2020 | Lumbar radiculopathy | Common peroneal Tibialis |
Mechanical pressure algometer (kg/cm2) (Pain Diagnosis and Treatment Inc., New York) |
Common peroneal: 2.1–2.3 Tibialis: 3.2–3.4 |
none |
| Moreira RFC et al. | 2020 | Hospital nursing assistants with LBP | Dorsal longissimus | Hand-held algometer (kgf/cm2) (Pain Diagnostic Treatment, New York, USA) |
Dorsal longissimus: 5.52–6.55 | none |
| Bond BM et al. | 2020 | Non-specific LBP | Lumbar Paraspinal Musculature | Digital algometer (kg/cm2) (Wagner Instruments, Greenwich, Connecticut) |
Lumbar Paraspinal Musculature: 3.36–3.39 | none |
| Chapman KB et al. | 2020 | Chronic LBP | The most painful side of the back | Pressure algometer (N/cm2) (Wagner Instruments, Greenwich, CT, USA) |
The most painful side of the back: 28.7 ± 4.1 | none |
| Aspinall SL et al. | 2020 | Chronic LBP | Lumber | Digital pressure algometer (kg/cm2) (FPIX 50, Wagner Instruments, Connecticut, USA) |
Lumber: 4.1–4.4 | Lumber: 5.5 ± 4.1 |
| Aspinall SL et al. | 2020 | LBP | Lumber | Digital pressure algometer (kg/cm2) (FPIX 50, Wagner Instruments, Connecticut, USA) |
Lumber: 4.14–4.30 | none |
| Petersson M et al. | 2020 | Healthy volunteers | Spinous processes from L1 to L5 (L1-L2, L2-L3, L3-L4 and L4-L5). |
Pressure algometer (kpa) (SOMEDIC Electronics brand, Solna, Sweden) |
none | Spinous processes L1-L2: 353–405 L2-L3: 319–361 L3-L4: 299–370 L4-L5: 306–321 |
| Aspinall SL et al. | 2019 | LBP | Lumber | Digital pressure algometer (kg/cm2) (FPIX 50, Wagner Instruments, Connecticut, USA) |
Lumber: 5.3 ± 3.3 | none |
| Alfieri FM et al. | 2019 | Non-specific LBP | ParavertebralL4–5 | J Tech algometer (lb) (Salt Lake City, UT, USA) | Paravertebral: 8.1–8.3 L4–5: 8.3 ± 3.6 |
Paravertebral: 12.9–13.1 L4–5: 12.8 ± 5.6 |
| McPhee ME et al. | 2019 | Recurrent LBP | L1 and L5 (3.5 cm lateral to the L1 and L5 spinous processes) |
Rubbertipped handheld pressure algometer (kpa) (Somedic, Norra Mellby, Sweden) |
L1: 405 L5: 415 |
L1: 550 L5: 560 |
| Kołcz A et al. | 2019 | Professionally active nurses | Erector spinae muscle | AlgoMed FPIX 50 (Medoc, Yishai, Israel) | none | Erector spinae muscle: 30 ± 1.8 |
| Marcuzzi A et al. | 2018 | Acute LBP | Back | Pressure algometer (kpa) (FDK40; Wagner Instrument, Greenwich, CT) |
Back: 2.6–2.7 | Back: 2.2 ± 0.3 |
| de Carvalho RC et al. | 2018 | LBP | 2 cm lateral to the L1, 3, and 5 spinous process | Pressure algometer (unknown) (EMG 830C, EMG System, São José dos Campos, Brazil) |
2 cm lateral to the L1, 3, and 5 spinous process: 5.29–5.68 | none |
| Bodes Pardo G et al. | 2018 | Chronic LBP | Spinal process of L3 | Fisher algometer (kg/cm2) (Force Dial model FDK 40) |
Spinal process of L3: 2.8–3.0 | none |
| Joseph LH et al. | 2018 | Elite female weight lifters with Chronic non-specific LBP | Lumbar region | Pressure algometer (kpa) (Algometer type II, Somedic SenseLab AB, Sweden) |
Lumbar region: 472.28–440.64 | none |
| O’Neill S et al. | 2018 | Non-specific LBP | Back-Lumbar | Pressure algometer (kpa) (Somedic model 2, 1 cm2 probe, Hørby, Sweden), |
Back-Lumbar: 322 ± 196 | Back-Lumbar: 398 ± 194 |
| Yildiz SH et al. | 2017 | Chronic LBP | L1 Paravertebral level L3 Paravertebral L5 Paravertebral |
Manual algometer (unknown) | L1 Paravertebral: 6.7–7.3 L3 Paravertebral: 6.8–7.3 L5 Paravertebral: 6.7–7.2 |
L1 Paravertebral: 7.6–9.5 L3 Paravertebral: 7.4–9.4 L5 Paravertebral: 7.6–9.5 |
| Shane LG et al. | 2017 | LBP | L3, L4, and L5 paraspinal muscles | Digital pressurealgometer (N/cm2) (Wagner Force Ten FDX, Wagner Instruments, Greenwich, CT) |
L3, L4, and L5 paraspinal muscles: 6.32–6.59 | none |
| Paungmali A et al. | 2017 | Chronic non-specific LBP | Lumbar region | Pressure algometer (kpa) (Algometer type II; Somedic Production AB, Sollentuna, Sweden) |
Lumbar region: 509.8 ± 133.3 | none |
| Mohanty PP et al. | 2017 | Coccydynia | Coccygeal region | Modified syringe algometer (unknown) | Coccygeal region: 2.2–2.5 | none |
| Calvo-Lobo C et al. | 2017 | Myofascial pain syndrome | Lumbar erector spinae muscles | Manual mechanical algometer (kg/cm2) (FDK/FDN, Wagner Instruments, 1217 Greenwich, CT 06836) | N = 20 (Active trigger points): 2.97 ± 0.82 N = 20 (Latent trigger points): 3.56 ± 0.77 |
N = 20 (Controls points): 4.49 ± 0.90 |
| Nothnagel H et al. | 2017 | Healthy volunteers | Lumbar paraspinal | Pressure gauge device (kpa) (FDN200, Wagner Instruments, Greenwich, CT, USA) |
none | Lumbar paraspinal: 589.68–628.32 |
| Farasyn A et al. | 2016 | Chronic non-specific LBP | Erector spinae T8 Erector spinae T10 Erector spinae L1 Erector spinae L3 Gluteus maximus pars superior Gluteus maximus pars inferior |
Electric pressure algometer (kg/cm2) (MYOMETER, Penny & Giles, U.K.), |
Erector spinae T8: 3.96 ± 1.30 Erector spinae T10: 3.73 ± 1.10 Erector spinae L1: 3.71 ± 1.20 Erector spinae L3: 5.29 ± 1.27 Gluteus maximus pars superior: 3.73 ± 1.17 Gluteus maximus pars inferior: 3.84 ± 0.94 |
Erector spinae T8: 7.03 ± 1.50 Erector spinae T10: 7.77 ± 1.31 Erector spinae L1: 8.69 ± 1.66 Erector spinae L3: 9.86 ± 1.41 Gluteus maximus pars superior: 9.10 ± 1.83Gluteus maximus pars inferior: 8.81 ± 2.01 |
| Imamura M et al. | 2016 | Chronic non-specific LBP | Gluteus medius middle portion Gluteus medius posterior portion Gluteus minimus Gluteus maximus Piriformis Quadratus Lumborum Iliopsoas Ligaments T12-L1/ L1-L2/ L2-L3/L3-L4/L4-L5 L5-S1/S1-S2/S2-S3 |
Pressure algometer (kg/cm2) (Pain Diagnostics, Great Neck, NY). |
Gluteus medius middle portion: 5.08 ± 2.12 Gluteus medius posterior portion: 4.92 ± 1.95 Gluteus minimus: 5.36 ± 2.20 Gluteus maximus: 5.20 ± 2.25 Piriformis: 5.70 ± 2.60 Quadratus Lumborum: 4.61 ± 1.85 Iliopsoas: 3.97 ± 1.78 Ligaments T12-L1: 5.09 ± 2.63 L1-L2: 4.97 ± 2.71 L2-L3: 4.96 ± 2.73 L3-L4: 4.93 ± 2.58 L4-L5: 4.74 ± 2.22 L5-S1: 4.83 ± 2.54 S1-S2: 5.00 ± 2.91 S2-S3: 5.25 ± 2.91 |
none |
| Balaguier R et al. | 2016 | Healthy volunteers | Lumbar spinal processes L1-L5 |
Somedic Algometer (kpa) (Type 2, Sollentuna, Sweden) |
none | Lumbar spinal processes L1: 593.4–654.6 L2: 616.0–664.1 L3: 573.4–638.6 L4: 560.9–657.6 L5: 607.5–653.9 |
| Weinkauf B et al. | 2015 | Healthy volunteers | Lumbar | Homogeneous pressure (kpa) (Wagner Instruments, USA) |
none | Lumbar: 703 ± 24 |
| Falla D et al. | 2014 | Chronic non-specific LBP | 8 locations at lumbar | Electronic algometer (kpa) (Somedic Production, Stockholm, Sweden) |
8 locations at lumbar: 268.0 ± 165.9 | 8 locations at lumbar: 320.1 ± 162.1 |
| Imamura M et al. | 2013 | Chronic LBP | Suprainterspinous ligaments situated between T12–L/L1–L2/L2–L3/L3–L4/L4–L5/L5–S1/S1–S2/S2–S3 |
Pressure algometer (kg/cm2) (Pain Diagnostics, Great Neck, NY) |
Suprainterspinous ligaments situated between T12–L: 5.06 ± 2.47 L1–L2: 4.84 ± 2.23 L2–L3: 4.64 ± 2.05 L3–L4: 4.83 ± 2.19 L4–L5: 4.65 ± 1.74 L5–S1: 5.40 ± 3.20 S1–S2: 5.77 ± 3.55 S2–S3: 5.71 ± 3.51 |
Suprainterspinous ligaments situated between T12–L: 7.16 ± 2.53 L1–L2: 7.29 ± 2.21 L2–L3: 7.49 ± 2.01 L3–L4: 7.46 ± 2.57 L4–L5: 8.10 ± 2.46 L5–S1: 8.38 ± 2.40 S1–S2: 8.89 ± 2.63 S2–S3: 8.75 ± 2.18 |
| de Oliveira RF et al. | 2013 | Chronic non-specific LBP | L3/L5 spinous process | Pressure algometer (N) (Kratos model DDK, Kratos Ltd., São Paulo, Brazil) |
L3/L5 spinous process: 48.90–49.63 | none |
| Neziri AY et al. | 2012 | Chronic LBP | Site of most severe pain at low back Nonpainful site at low back |
Electronic pressure algometer (kpa) (Somedic, Hörby, Sweden) |
Site of most severe pain at low back: 168 ± 113 Nonpainful site at low back: 249 ± 132 |
Site of most severe pain at low back: 352 ± 131 Nonpainful site at low back: 352 ± 131 |
| Zheng Z et al. | 2012 | Chronic non-specific LBP | Lumbar tender point | Model OE-220, made in Ito ultrashort wave corporation of Japan (kg/cm2) |
Lumbar tender point: 3.7–3.8 | none |
| McSweeney TP et al. | 2012 | Healthy volunteers | Paravertebral soft tissue at L1 | Handheld manual digital pressure algometer (N) (Wagner FPX 25) | none | Paravertebral soft tissue at L1: 53.7–60.1 |
| Yu X et al. | 2012 | Healthy volunteers | L5-S1 zygapophyseal joints | Mechanical pressure algometer (kg/cm2) (Wagner, Greenwich, CT) |
none | L5-S1 zygapophyseal joints: 4.87–5.01 |
| O’Neill S et al. | 2011 | Chronic LBP | Spinous process of L4 | Pressure algometer (kpa) (Model 2, Somedic, Sweden) |
Spinous process of L4: 677 | Spinous process of L4: 755 |
| Binderup AT et al. | 2011 | Healthy volunteers (cleaners) | Spinal processes L1–5 Low back Erector Spinae |
Hand-held pressure algometer (kpa) (Somedic Algometer type 2, Sweden) |
none | Spinal processes L1–5: 427.9 ± 204.7 Erector Spinae: 409.8 ± 194.5 |
| Hirayama J et al. | 2006 | Lumbar disc herniation | 2 cm lateral to the L1, 3 and 5 spinous process 5 cm lateral to the L1 and 3 spinous process |
Electronic pressure algometer (kpa) (Somedic, Farsta, Sweden) |
2 cm lateral to the L1: 451.4 ± 214.8 L3: 348.5 ± 179.6 L5: 267.7 ± 105.1 5 cm lateral to the L1: 325.6 ± 133.0 L3: 297.1 ± 157.2 |
2 cm lateral to the L1: 438.1–441.3 L3: 418.5–424.5 L5: 395.5–401.3 5 cm lateral to the L1: 331.8–362.1 L3: 314.0–335.3 |
| Farasyn A et al. | 2005 | Subacute non-specific LBP | Erector spinae mass T6, T10, L1, L3 and L5 Gluteus maximus Gluteus medius Tensor fasciae latae (TFL). |
Mechanical Fischer pressure algometer (kg/cm2) (Pain Diagnostics and Thermography, Great Neck, NY, USA) |
Erector spinae mass T6: 6.7 ± 1.8 T10: 6.6 ± 1.1 L1: 6.4 ± 1.2 L3: 5.3 ± 14 L5: 7.2 ± 1.6 Gluteus maximus: 6.4 ± 1.6 Gluteus medius: 6.1 ± 1.6 TFL: 6.3 ± 1.5 |
Erector spinae mass T6: 7.6 ± 1.1 T10: 7.4 ± 1.1 L1: 7.4 ± 1.2 L3: 7.7 ± 1.7 L5: 9.5 ± 1.2 Gluteus maximus: 8.0 ± 1.5 Gluteus medius: 7.2 ± 1.5 TFL: 7.1 ± 1.4 |