Table 1.
Impact of vitamin D supplementation in liver and non-liver diseases1 (HOMA-IR: Homeostasis Model Assessment Insulin Resistance; HCV: hepatitis C virus; ApoA1: Apolipoprotein A1; ApoC3: apolipoprotein C-III; HBV: hepatitis B virus; VDR: vitamin D receptor; NAFLD: non-alcoholic fatty liver disease; ALD: alcoholic liver disease; TNF: tumour necrosis factor; AIH: autoimmune hepatitis; Th: T helper; PBC: primary biliary cholangitis; SBP: spontaneous bacterial peritonitis; ACLD: advanced chronic liver disease; HCC: hepatocellular carcinoma; TGF: transforming growth factor; VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; AFP: alpha-fetoprotein).
| Target | Action |
|---|---|
| Non-Liver Diseases | |
| IMMUNE SYSTEM | Reduced risk of respiratory infection, such as tuberculosis and COVID-19 and sepsis. |
| Improved response to steroid treatment in autoimmune disease, like psoriasis, type 1 diabetes, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis. | |
| INSULIN SENSITIVITY | Better control of insulin secretion of pancreatic β-cell. Improved insulin resistance, marked by a decrease in HOMA-IR |
| CARCINOGENESIS | Reduced risk of breast, colon, pancreatic and prostate cancer |
| Liver Disease | |
| VIRAL HEPATITIS | Improved response to interferon-based therapy by inhibiting HCV production by reducing the expression of ApoA1 and ApoC3 mRNAs |
| Inhibition of HBV activity by targeting the HBV core promoter | |
| Inactivation of host immune genes by its intracellular VDR pathways | |
| Slowed down progression to advanced fibrosis stage with an anti-inflammatory effect | |
| NAFLD | Improved insulin resistance, marked by a decrease in Homeostasis Model Assessment Insulin Resistance (HOMA-IR) |
| ALD | Reduced TNF-alfa production, leading to a downregulation of the harmful cascade in the liver after an incongruous intake of alcohol |
| AIH | Promoted anti-inflammatory action of glucocorticoids in treatment of AIH |
| VDR agonists inhibit proinflammatory, pathogenic T cells such as Th1 and Th17 cells and favour the development of Th2 and T regulatory cells in Th1-mediated-autoimmune disease like PBC | |
| ACLD | Antibacterial immune response to SBP of VDR system and its downstream gene LL-37 |
| More significant increase in the skeletal mass index compared with only branched-chain amino acids assumption in sarcopenia treatment | |
| HCC | Downregulation of the expression of tumour growth factor β (TGFβ) by activating caspase 3, and restoring its expression initially lost in the liver tumours |
| Inhibition of the formation of new blood vessels, prevention of the neoangiogenesis underlying hepatocarcinogenesis mediated by the VEGF | |
| Regulation of the progression of HCC through the activation of apoptosis, reducing oxidative stress and inflammation | |
| Relationship between VDR polymorphisms and the onset of HCC | |
| Association between VDR promoter methylation expression in patients with HCC and AFP values | |