Table 2.

Biological effects of various types of carrageenans.

CG Used	Technique	Studied Effects	Ref
OKC	K-CG oxidation—exposure to NaIO4 (1:0.5 ratio; at 40 °C; for 3 h; at pH 3), crosslinking with PVA and HA (HA:OKC:PVA—0:4:6; 1:3:6; 2:2:6; 3:1:6; 2.5:2.5:5; 3.5:3.5:3). Electrospinning: 5 mL syringe; 22G needle; 0.5 mL/h at 25 ± 2 °C; 10 cm tip-to-collector; 17.5 kV DC voltage	Antibacterial properties	[77]
K-CG	Solvents: distilled H2O, with and without sonication; NaCl solution; crosslinking with fully or partially hydrolyzed PVA (PVA:K-CG 70:30)	Drug and nutrient delivery ability	[79]
CMKC	Crosslinked with PVA; PVA:CMKC—1:0; 1:0.25; 1:0.4; 1:0.5; 1:0.75. Electrospinning: 19G needle; 1 mL/h at 20 ± 2 °C; 15 cm tip-to-collector 15 kV DC voltage	Cytocompatibility, biodegradability, cell growth, cell adhesion, adipose-derived stem cells’ response to osteogenic differentiation signals	[81]
I-CG	Crosslinked with PVA and addition of graphene oxide (PVA:I-CG:GO—95:3:2). Electrospinning: 15 cm tip-to-collector 20 kV DC voltage	Wound healing, skin repair, antimicrobial properties	[80]
I-CG	Crosslinking with polycaprolactone (PCL); PCL:I-CG—100:0; 95:5; 90:10; 85:15; 80:20; 0:100. Electrospinning: 10; 15; 18 cm tip-to-collector 20 kV DC voltage	Biocompatibility, bone tissue growth	[89]
K-CG	Crosslinked with polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) or polyhydroxybutyrate valerate (PHBV); PHB:K-CG and PHBV:K-CG—100:0; 90:10; 80:20; 70:30. Electrospinning: 1 mLSyringe dispensed at 3.5 mL/h (PHB/K-CG) and 3.0 mL/h (PHBV/K-CG); 15 cm tip-to-collector; 20 kV DC voltage	Bone tissue engineering	[90]
K-CG	Crosslinked with PHB, caffeic acid (CA), and quaternized chitosan (QCh). Electrospinning: 2 mL/h; 15 cm tip-to-collector; 25 kV DC voltage	Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties	[91]
K-CG	Crosslinked with polydioxanone (PDX); PDX:K-CG—100:0; 90:10; 80:20; 70:30. Electrospinning: 6 mL/h; 15 cm tip-to-collector; 25 kV DC voltage	Viability and differentiation of SaOS-2 preosteoblasts	[92]