Table 4.
Biological characteristics of carrageenans.
| Properties | Description | Reference |
|---|---|---|
| Formulations | 3D scaffolds, beads, drug-loaded plasticized films, fibers, gels, hydrogels, nanofibers, nanoparticles, PVP-KCG, three-layered matrix, and sponges | [48,56,61,68] |
| Topical biocompatibility | Low toxicity but non-teratogenic, may cause inflammation and adverse effects on human intestinal epithelial cells | [48,61] |
| Local properties | Drug delivery, anticoagulant, anti-HIV, antioxidant, antithrombotic, antitumor, and antiviral effect | [1,39,46,48,56,62,120] |
| Mechanisms | Super case II release mechanism; hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds at pH ≤ 3.0; desulfation by sulfatases; anionic CG molecules interact with the positively charged virus or cell surface | [40,56,68,120] |
| Immunogenicity | Interfere with antigens lowering the normal immune function Interact with the virus cell surface or its positive charges and prevent host cells from being penetrated by the virus |
[56,121] |
| Anti-infectious properties | Bacteriostatic: Salmonella enteritidis; antimicrobial: Aeromonas hydrophila, enterotoxigenic E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enteritidis, S. typhimurium, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, Vibrio mimicus | [45,117] |
| Anti-inflammatory properties | Induce inflammation (paw edema), but interfere with NSAIDs. If loaded with diclofenac, they reduce inflammation. |
[48,56,122,123] |
| 3D scaffolds | Alginate–carrageenan mix, gelatin/K-CG sponges, K-CG/calcium phosphate, hydrogel beads and fibers, metoprolol tartrate delivery in 3-layered matrix tablets, PVP-KCG | [1,56,63,68,117] |
| Elimination | Fecal elimination after oral intake | [56] |