Table 1.
Studies investigating known and possible prognostic biomarkers in patients with acute myocardial infarction.
| Biomarker | Study | Prognostic Value |
|---|---|---|
| C-reactive protein (CRP) | Iwona et al. [18] | In patients with STEMI undergoing pPCI, CRP was associated with HF hospitalization risk and HF-related mortality in long-term follow-up (median period of 5.6 years) |
| Söğüt et al. [21] | CRP/albumin ratio could predict clinical outcomes of STEMI | |
| Fibrinogen | Song et al. [23] | In patients with NSTEMI undergoing pPCI, fibrinogen was a predictor of death or non-fatal reinfarction within 1 year of follow-up |
| Zhao et al. [26] | In patients with STEMI undergoing pPCI, fibrinogen/albumin ratio was an independent predictor of 30-day mortality and no-reflow after pPCI | |
| Interleukin-6 (IL-6) | Fanola et al. [32] | IL-6 levels, after ACS, were significantly correlated with the risk of MACEs independent of established risk predictors or other biomarkers (median follow-up of 2.5 years) |
| Interleukin-37 (IL-37) | Liu et al. [36] | In STEMI patients treated with pPCI, higher levels of IL-37 were an independent predictor for in-hospital MACEs |
| B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) | Zubair et al. [45] | Blood-stream BNP molecular forms were related to MACE, death and HF at 6 months and 1 and 2 years follow-up in AMI patients |
| Wolsk et al. [47] | In patients with ACS and diabetes mellitus, BNP was associated with significant predictions for death, CV death and HF (median follow-up of 26 months) | |
| Wang et al. [48] | AMI patients with high BNP levels presented low survival rates within 1 year of follow-up | |
| Lee et al. [49] | High initial or follow-up BNP levels were potent independent indicators for all-cause death and MACEs in AMI patients | |
| Hsu et al. [51] | BNP was a substantial independent predictor of LV remodeling after 6 months in AMI patients | |
| Mid-regional proadrenomedullin (MR-proADM) | Supel et al. [54] | Elevated level of MR-proADM in plasma, measured 24 h after the diagnosis of CS, was a predictor of in-hospital mortality in patients with AMI complicated by CS |
| Falkentoft et al. [56] | In patients with STEMI, increased plasma concentrations of MR-proADM were linked to elevated risks of short- and long-term all-cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality and hospital admission for heart failure, regardless of other risk factors (median follow-up of 1105 days) | |
| N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP) | Gong et al. [57] | In NSTEMI patients, NT-proBNP was a powerful prognostic marker for all-cause death, hospital admission for HF and non-fatal MI or TLR (313 days median follow-up) |
| Zhao et al. [59] | In STEMI patients undergoing pPCI, NT-proBNP was an independent predictor for in-hospital cardiovascular mortality, TLR, advanced HF, atrioventricular block, stroke, reinfarction and ventricular arrhythmia | |
| Lindholm et al. [60] | In patients with ACS, baseline values of NT-proBNP were an independent predictor for all-cause death, sudden cardiac death and death due to HF or arrhythmia | |
| Celebi et al. [62] | NT-proBNP assessment at admission was a good predictor for left ventricle aneurism formation in STEMI patients (6 months follow-up) | |
| Copeptin | Lattuca et al. [66] | Copeptin assessed on admission in STEMI patients was an independent predictor of 1 year all-cause mortality |
| Ahmed et al. [67] | Copeptin was a prognostic marker for any MACE (TLR, HF, stroke, reinfarction, cardiac death and rehospitalization for ischemic events) at 1 year of follow-up in NSTEMI patients | |
| Platelet-related biomarkers | Avci et al. [74] | In STEMI patients, increased MPV values during hospitalization were correlated with long-term mortality |
| Chang et al. [75] | High MPV levels were associated with increased risk of MACEs (all-cause mortality, time to recurrent ACS, stroke and TLR) in ACS patients (median follow-up of 2.4 years) | |
| Çanga et al. [77] | MPV was an independent predictor of MACEs in short-term follow-up (cardiovascular death and non-fatal reinfarction within 30 days) in young STEMI patients | |
| Kurtul et al. [79] | MPV was a predictor for short-term mortality and no-reflow phenomena in STEMI patients | |
| Chunyang et al. [81] | MPV/PC ratio was a long-term adverse outcome predictor in STEMI patients (30 months of follow-up) | |
| Ösken et al. [82] | In STEMI patients, MPV/PC ratio was correlated with long-term ST and mortality (5 years of follow-up) | |
| Troponins | Zeljković et al. [85] | cTnT was a predictor for LV systolic dysfunction (<50%) within 1 year of follow-up in STEMI patients |
| Mohammad et al. [86] | In STEMI patients, the hs-cTnT level predicted long-term LV dysfunction (12 months of follow-up) | |
| Ndrepepa et al. [90] | In patients with STEMI undergoing pPCI, admission or peak post-procedural hs-cTnT were independently linked with the probability of 3 year death | |
| Harada et al. [91] | Post-procedural hs-TnT was independently related with higher risk of death up to 1 year after PCI in individuals with NSTEMI who received early PCI | |
| Creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB) | Johannes et al. [95] | CK-MB was a risk factor for HF onset after STEMI (median follow-up of 6.7 years) |
| Ndrepepa et al. [98] | Peak post-procedural CK-MB was a predictor of 3 year mortality | |
| Hsu et al. [51] | CK-MB was an independent predictor of LV remodeling after 6 months in AMI patients | |
| Cystatin C (cysC) | Cheng et al. [109] | CysC was a predictor for no-reflow phenomena in STEMI patients undergoing pPCI |
| Lou et al. [110] | CysC was a predictor for MACE (cardiovascular mortality and all-cause mortality) in AMI patients | |
| Brankovic et al. [111] | Independently of the GRACE risk score, cysC levels predicted death or recurrence of ACS during the first year | |
| Barbarash et al. [112] | CysC was a predictor of adverse cardiovascular outcomes within 3 years of follow-up in STEMI patients | |
| Correa et al. [115] | CysC was a predictor of adverse cardiovascular outcomes in ACS patients (median follow-up of 2.5 years) | |
| Mao et al. [116] | CysC was an independent predictor of MACEs (cardiac death, non-fatal MI, TLR, HF, non-fatal stroke) in NSTEMI patients within 12 months of follow-up | |
| Chen et al. [117] | High cysC levels at admission were an independent predictor of cardiac mortality and long-term all-cause mortality in STEMI patients (median follow-up of 40.7 months) | |
| Endothelial cell-related biomarkers | Ziaee et al. [131] | Endocan was an independent predictor for MACEs (in-hospital death, HF and recurrent ischemia) comparable with that of the TIMI risk score in ACS patients |
| Dogdus et al. [134] | Endocan was an independent predictor for no-reflow phenomena in STEMI patients | |
| Aspartate transaminase (AST) | Steiniger et al. [138] | De-Ritis ratio was a strong independent predictor for long-term mortality in AMI patients (median follow-up of 8.7 years) |
| Galectin-3 (Gal-3) | Giuseppe Di Tano et al. [154] | In patients with a first anterior STEMI treated with pPCI, Gal-3 levels were a strong independent predictor of long-term all-cause death and HF hospitalization (median follow-up of 22 months) |
| Rabea et al. [155] | Gal-3 was an independent predictor of HF and mortality after an AMI (median follow-up of 5.4 years) | |
| Stanojevic et al. [162] | STEMI patients with high Gal-3 levels presented 4.4 times greater risk of developing AF | |
| Agata et al. [164] | Gal-3 was an independent predictor for HF onset at 1 year of follow-up in STEMI patients treated with pPCI | |
| Gagno et al. [156] | Gal-3 was an independent predictor for 1 year all-cause mortality but not for AMI or angina pectoris | |
| Soluble suppression of tumorigenicity 2 (sST2) | Somuncu et al. [167] | Within 1 year of follow-up in patients with MI, high levels of sST2 were a strong predictor of poor CV outcomes, including CV death and heart failure |
| Hartopo et al. [168] | sST2 levels were an independent predictor of adverse cardiac events (cardiac death, acute HF, reinfarction, resuscitated ventricular arrythmias, cardiogenic shock) during acute intensive care for STEMI | |
| Jenkins et al. [171] | Higher values of sST2 after an AMI were correlated with increased risk of HF and death over a long-term follow-up period (median period of 5 years) | |
| Shiru et al. [176] | sST2 was a predictor marker for impaired myocardial reperfusion in STEMI patients treated with pPCI | |
| Yu et al. [174] | Elevated sST2 levels at admission were independent predictors for 1 year MACEs in STEMI patients | |
| Liu et al. [175] | In patients with STEMI undergoing PCI, sST2 was found to be an independent predictor for MACEs (all cause death, a non-fatal MI and HF) and mortality (12 months of follow-up) | |
| Growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15) | Peiró et al. [178] | Concentrations greater than 1800 ng/L were linked to an elevated risk of all-cause mortality, MACE, hospitalization for HF and cardiovascular death |
| Li et al. [179] | ||
| Zelniker et al. [180] | ||
| Syndecan-1 (Sdc1) | Wernly et al. [184] | Sdc1 > 120 ng/mL was independently linked with death at 6 months |
| Circulating LIPCAR | Yan et al. [186] | LIPCAR may be a biomarker of early HF following AMI |
| Li et al. [187] | In STEMI, greater levels of LIPCAR were found to be independent predictors of significant adverse cardiovascular events | |
| Thrombospondin-1 (TSP-1) | Liao et al. [191] | TSP-1 was an independent risk factor for atrial arrhythmias in patients with AMI |
| Uric acid (UA) | Lazaros et al. [197] | In ACS, peak admission UA levels could predict both 30 day and 1 year mortality Hyperuricemia has been linked to an increased risk of 2 and 5 year all-cause mortality in STEMI patients following PCI, with the best cut-off value to predict MACE in young patients with NSTEMI being 5.2 mg/dL |
| Tang et al. [198] | ||
| Kaya et al. [199] | ||
| Çanga et al. [200] | ||
| Neuropeptide-Y (NPY) | Herring et al. [208] | NPY was independently associated with coronary microvascular dysfunction, increased cardiac injury and decreased LV ejection fraction 6 months after an acute event and with subsequent heart failure and mortality over an average follow-up of 6.4 years |
| Gibbs et al. [211] | ||
| MicroRNAs (miRNAs) | Widera et al. [227] | miRNA-133a and miRNA-208b were linked to an important rise in all-cause death at 6 months after an AMI |
| Goretti et al. [228] | miRNA-499 was found to be effective at predicting death at 30 days, 4 months and 1, 2 and 6 years | |
| Xiao et al. [229] | ||
| Olivieri et al. [230] | ||
| Matsumoto et al. [231,232] | ||
| Dong et al. [233] | miRNA-145 has been shown to be able to predict cardiovascular mortality, as well as the onset of heart failure | |
| Wang et al. [234] | miRNA-208b and miRNA-34a can be used as indicators of LV remodeling following myocardial infarction and are linked to higher mortality at 6 months, as well as a 23.1% higher probability of having HF | |
| Rincón et al. [241] | miR-21-5p, miR-23a-3p, miR27b-3p, miR-122-5p, miR210-3p and miR-221-3p could accurately predict hospital admission for HF or cardiovascular death after a mean follow-up of 2.1 years |
ACS, acute coronary syndrome; AMI, acute myocardial infarction; CRP, C-reactive protein; cysC, cystatin C; Gal-3, galectin-3; HF, heart failure; hs-cTnT, highly sensitive cardiac troponin; LV, left ventricular; MACE, major cardiovascular event; microRNA, microribonucleic acid; MPV, mean platelet volume; MR-proADM, mid-regional proadrenomedullin; LIPCAR, a long noncoding ribonucleic acid; NT-proBNP, N-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide; NSTEMI, non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction; PC, platelet count; pPCI, primary percutaneous coronary intervention; STEMI, ST-elevation myocardial infarction; TLR, target lesion revascularization.