Table 6.

Summary of studies investigating the effect of nano-emulsions on the intestinal permeability and oral pharmacokinetic parameters of drugs.

Drug (s)	Model	Results	Ref.
Paeonol	In situ: single-pass intestine perfusion	Papp: 1.64-fold increase Ka: 0.65-fold increase	[115]
	In vitro: everted gut sacs	Papp: increased (p < 0.01)
	In vitro: Caco-2 cell	Papp: increased
	In vivo: rat intestinal uptake	AUC0→t: 4.27-fold increase Cmax: 4.02-fold increase Tmax: 40-min increase
Berberine hydrochloride	In vivo: rat intestinal uptake	AUC: 4.4-fold increase Cmax: 1.6-fold increase Tmax: 4.3-fold increase	[114]
	In vitro: Caco-2 cell	Papp: increased to 0.574 ± 0.18 × 10−8 cm/s
Curcumin	In vitro: Caco-2 cell	The digested nanoemulsion had the highest permeation rate (7.07 × 105 cm/s)	[109]
Candesartan cilexetil	In situ single-pass intestinal perfusion	Cellular uptake: 1.75-, 1.93-, and 1.84-fold increase in the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, respectively.	[111]
	In vitro: Caco-2 cell	The cellular uptake of CCN at 4 °C reduced 92% compared with that at 37 °C (p < 0.01)
	In vivo: rat intestinal uptake	AUC: 10-fold increase Cmax: 27-fold increase Tmax: no change
Ibuprofen	In vitro diffusion chamber: rat intestinal membrane	Papp: 10.6-fold	[110]
	In vivo: rat intestinal uptake	AUC 0–6h: 2.2-fold increase Cmax: 27-fold increase Tmax: no change