Table 1.

Baseline characteristics of articles included in our analysis [19,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40,41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48,49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79].

Author and Year	Country	Sample Size	Study Period	Population	Funding	NOS 1
Aemro et al., 2021 [25]	Ethiopia	418	May–June 2021	Healthcare workers	No funding	5
Ali et al., 2021 [26]	Bangladesh	1134	January 2021	General population	No funding	6
Barry et al., 2021 [27]	Saudi Arabia	1512	November 2020	Healthcare workers	No funding	6
Bell et al., 2020 [28]	England	1252	April–May 2020	General population	London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine	6
Chen et al., 2021 [29]	China	2531	January 2021	General population	NA	7
Chudasama et al., 2022 [30]	Multinational	275	April–July 2021	Healthcare workers	NA	6
Detoc et al., 2020 [31]	France	3259	March–April 2020	General population	NA	5
Dong et al., 2020 [32]	China	1236	June–July 2020	General population	Chinese University of Hong Kong	6
Dror et al., 2020 [33]	Israel	1661	2020–2022	Healthcare workers	NA	5
Faasse et al., 2020 [34]	Australia	2232	March 2020	General population	UNSW Science Goldstar (2020)	5
Fisher et al., 2020 [35]	US	991	April 2020	General population	Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality	7
Goodwin et al., 2022 [36]	Multinational	3059	December 2020–January 2021	General population	Ariel University, JSPS KAKENSHI, Hungaria National Excellence Program	6
Habib et al., 2022 [37]	Saudi Arabia	1445	August–October 2021	Students	King Saud University	7
Bou Hamdan et al., 2021 [38]	Lebanon	758	May–June 2021	Students	No funding	7
Harapan et al., 2020 [39]	Indonesia	1359	March–April 2020	General population	No funding	6
Horiuchi et al., 2021 [40]	Japan	1200	May–June 2021	General population	No funding	7
Hossain et al., 2021 [41]	Bangladesh	1497	February 2021	General population	No funding	6
Huang et al., 2022 [42]	China	4227	January–March 2021	General population	National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China	7
Ikiisik et al., 2021 [43]	Turkey	384	December 2020	General population	NA	7
Jabessa et al., 2022 [44]	Ethiopia	350	August–September 2021	General population	No funding	6
Jain et al., 2021 [45]	India	1068	February–March 2021	Students	No funding	6
Kelekar et al., 2021 [46]	US	408	September–December 2020	Students	NA	6
Khubchandani et al., 2021 [47]	US	1878	June 2020	General population	No funding	8
Koh et al., 2022 [48]	Singapore	528	May–June 2021	Healthcare workers	No funding	6
Kumar et al., 2021 [49]	Qatar	1414	October–November 2020	Healthcare workers	Qatar National Library	5
Lazarus et al., 2020 [50]	Multinational	13,426	June 2020	General population	City University of New York	6
Lee et al., 2022 [51]	South Korea	1016	January 2021	General population	No funding	6
Li et al., 2022 [52]	China	721	June 2021	Students	Xuzhou Medical University	7
Liddell et al., 2021 [53]	Australia	437	June 2021	General population	UNSW Sydney/Australian Red Cross	6
Lucia et al., 2021 [54]	US	167	NA	Students	No funding	5
Malik et al., 2020 [55]	US	672	May 2020	General population	Yale Institute for Global Health	8
Marzo et al., 2022 [56]	Multinational	5260	February–May 2021	General population	No funding	7
Mascarenhas et al., 2021 [57]	US	245	2020	Students	No funding	6
Mohammed et al., 2021 [58]	Ethiopia	614	March–July 2021	Healthcare workers	No funding	7
Mose et al., 2022 [59]	Ethiopia	420	March 2021	Students	No funding	6
Nery et al., 2022 [60]	Brazil	2537	November 2020–January 2021	General population	Brazilian Ministry of Health	8
Neumann-Böhme et al., 2020 [61]	Multinational	7664	April 2020	General population	European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme	6
Ousseine et al., 2022 [62]	France	15,427	February–April 2021	General population	National Agency for Research on AIDS and Viral Hepatitis (ANRS)	6
Patwary et al., 2021 [19]	Bangladesh	543	July–August 2021	General population	No funding	6
Qunaibi et al., 2021 [63]	Multinational	36,220	January 2021	General population	No funding	7
Raja et al., 2022 [64]	Sudan	217	June–July 2021	Students	No funding	5
Reiter et al., 2020 [65]	US	2006	May 2020	General population	National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences	7
Rodríguez-Blanco et al., 2021 [66]	Spain	2494	November–December 2020	General population	No funding	6
Saied et al., 2021 [67]	Egypt	2133	January 2021	Students	NA	7
Salali et al., 2020 [68]	Multinational	5024	May 2020	General population	No funding	6
Schwarzinger et al., 2021 [69]	France	1942	July 2020	General population	French Public Health Agency	7
Shah et al., 2021 [70]	India	274	February 2021	Students	NA	7
Singh et al., 2021 [71]	Hong Kong	245	May 2021	General population	Tung Foundation	7
Tao et al., 2021 [72]	China	1392	November 2020	General population	National Key Research and Development Project of China	7
Tlale et al., 2022 [73]	Botswana	4952	February 2021	General population	No funding	6
Wang et al., 2020 [74]	Hong Kong	806	February–March 2020	Healthcare workers	No funding	6
Ward et al., 2020 [75]	France	5018	April 2020	General population	Agence Nationale de la Recheche and the CNRS	8
Wong et al., 2020 [76]	Malaysia	1159	April 2020	General population	Ministry of Education Malaysia	8
Wu et al., 2021 [77]	China	29,925	August 2021	General population	National Social Science Fund of China	7
Xu et al., 2021 [78]	China	5247	January 2021	Healthcare workers	Health Commission of Chongqing municipal, China	6
Yassin et al., 2022 [79]	Sudan	365	April 2021	Healthcare workers	NA	6

¹ NOS: Newcastle–Ottawa scale; all selected studies were based on a cross-sectional design.