Table 2.
The potential factors associated with the hesitancy to COVID-19 vaccination.
| Covariates | Hesitancy/Total (n [%]) | NS | p Egger | p Het | OR | 95% CI | p |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Age group (years) | |||||||
| ≤30 | 6568/14,356 [45.8] | 16 | 0.2320 | <0.0001 | 1.14 | 0.98–1.32 | 0.0870 |
| 31–40 | 5097/11,335 [45.0] | 16 | 0.2360 | <0.0001 | 1.09 | 0.94–1.26 | 0.2630 |
| 41–50 | 3034/6536 [46.4] | 15 | 0.2730 | <0.0001 | 0.88 | 0.74–1.06 | 0.1760 |
| >50 | 2034/4677 [43.5] | 13 | 0.2980 | <0.0001 | 0.79 | 0.64–0.98 | 0.0290 |
| Sex | |||||||
| Male | 8934/22,362 [40.0] | 31 | 0.2840 | <0.0001 | 0.76 | 0.67–0.85 | <0.0001 |
| Female | 11,170/28,707 [38.9] | 31 | 0.2840 | <0.0001 | 1.32 | 1.17–1.49 | <0.0001 |
| Marital status | |||||||
| Married | 6888/20,496 [33.6] | 17 | 0.1950 | <0.0001 | 0.84 | 0.75–0.95 | 0.0040 |
| Single | 7173/18,764 [38.2] | 17 | 0.1950 | <0.0001 | 1.19 | 1.06–1.34 | 0.0040 |
| Educational attainment | |||||||
| <BSC | 12,130/22,950 [52.9] | 22 | 0.5260 | <0.0001 | 1.30 | 1.03–1.65 | 0.0300 |
| ≥BSC | 17,532/41,182 [42.6] | 22 | 0.5260 | <0.0001 | 0.77 | 0.61–0.97 | 0.0300 |
| Religion | |||||||
| Christian | 1053/2124 [49.6] | 5 | <0.0001 | 0.4380 | 1.17 | 1.01–1.35 | 0.0340 |
| Muslim | 1265/3961 [31.9] | 6 | 0.5110 | <0.0001 | 1.39 | 0.85–2.26 | 0.1860 |
| Hindu | 16/129 [12.4] | 2 | 1.5700 | 0.0710 | 0.28 | 0.02–3.40 | 0.3150 |
| Employment | |||||||
| Not working | 1704/4455 [38.2] | 10 | 0.1790 | 0.0090 | 1.20 | 1.02–1.42 | 0.0300 |
| Working | 5883/16,413 [35.8] | 10 | 0.1790 | 0.0090 | 0.83 | 0.71–0.98 | 0.0300 |
| Healthcare-related job | 2886/8313 [34.7] | 10 | 0.3340 | <0.0001 | 0.68 | 0.52–0.89 | 0.0040 |
| Socioeconomic status | |||||||
| Low income | 1320/2939 [44.9] | 7 | 0.4840 | <0.0001 | 1.31 | 0.88–1.94 | 0.1790 |
| Middle income | 1217/3220 [37.8] | 7 | 1.2050 | <0.0001 | 0.61 | 0.25–1.52 | 0.2900 |
| High income | 1427/2515 [56.7] | 7 | 1.2860 | <0.0001 | 1.28 | 0.49–3.38 | 0.6140 |
| Urbanicity | |||||||
| Urban | 9192/28,583 [32.2] | 15 | 0.4500 | <0.0001 | 0.92 | 0.72–1.18 | 0.5070 |
| Rural | 3128/8338 [37.5] | 15 | 0.4500 | <0.0001 | 1.09 | 0.85–1.39 | 0.5070 |
| Children at home | 1207/4595 [26.3] | 8 | 1.4040 | <0.0001 | 0.37 | 0.14–0.99 | 0.0490 |
| Aged people at home | 456/1542 [29.6] | 5 | 0.2760 | 0.0140 | 1.07 | 0.78–1.45 | 0.6920 |
| Household number (n) | |||||||
| ≤2 | 930/3192 [29.1] | 5 | 0.3900 | <0.0001 | 0.94 | 0.64–1.36 | 0.7270 |
| 3–4 | 564/2067 [27.3] | 5 | 0.2290 | 0.0110 | 0.89 | 0.69–1.14 | 0.3510 |
| ≥5 | 278/712 [39.0] | 4 | 0.1680 | 0.1620 | 1.36 | 1.13–1.63 | 0.0010 |
| Family members with medical backgrounds | 464/1382 [33.6] | 2 | 0.0410 | 0.3170 | 0.92 | 0.78–1.07 | 0.2770 |
| Wearing masks all the time | 1523/6606 [23.1] | 6 | 0.5570 | <0.0001 | 0.61 | 0.36–1.05 | 0.0720 |
| Constantly washing hands | 1209/4974 [24.3] | 4 | 0.8900 | <0.0001 | 0.45 | 0.18–1.16 | 0.0980 |
| Keep physical distancing | 213/745 [28.6] | 3 | 0.8370 | 0.0010 | 0.23 | 0.08–0.65 | 0.0050 |
| Smoker | 665/2236 [29.7] | 5 | 0.0590 | 0.3360 | 1.13 | 0.99–1.29 | 0.0610 |
| History of chronic disease(s) | 3828/8197 [46.7] | 17 | 0.1840 | <0.0001 | 0.91 | 0.80–1.03 | 0.1420 |
| Ever tested for COVID-19 | 670/4430 [15.1] | 6 | 0.4340 | <0.0001 | 0.46 | 0.31–0.68 | <0.0001 |
| Personal history of COVID-19 diagnosis | 4114/7733 [53.2] | 15 | 0.6090 | <0.0001 | 0.94 | 0.66–1.33 | 0.7150 |
| Family member/friend ever diagnosed with COVID-19 | 1192/3759 [31.7] | 7 | 0.2960 | <0.0001 | 0.83 | 0.63–1.09 | 0.1730 |
| Hospitalization due to COVID-19 among people in the same social circle | 69/621 [11.1] | 2 | <0.0001 | 0.9770 | 0.57 | 0.37–0.88 | 0.0110 |
| Death due to COVID-19 among people in the same social circle | 63/537 [11.7] | 3 | <0.0001 | 0.9450 | 0.73 | 0.49–1.08 | 0.1160 |
| COVID-19 vaccines are not safe | 628/1595 [39.4] | 6 | 0.7000 | <0.0001 | 2.24 | 1.21–4.14 | 0.0100 |
| Influenza vaccination in the past few years | 3481/10,687 [32.6] | 11 | 0.3460 | <0.0001 | 0.46 | 0.36–0.58 | <0.0001 |
OR: odds ratio; CI: confidence interval; NS: number of studies; p Het: p heterogeneity; BSC: Bachelor of Science.