. 2022 Aug 26;17:100. doi: 10.1186/s13020-022-00651-2

Table 10.

Antiviral activity of propolis water, ethanol and hydroalcholic extracts (WE, EE and HAE, respectively) and isolated compounds

Extract/Compound	Concentration /Dose	Test system	Results/Mechanisms	References
WE and EE	0–120 pfu (%)	HSV-1 on RC-37 cells	Affects viral infection cycle	[294]
WE and EE	0.00005–0.005 pfu (%)	HSV-2 on cells RC-37	Inhibition of HSV-2 plaque formation (IC₅₀ 0.0005% and 0.0004%, respectively)	[295]
0.5% WE	_	Rat and rabbit infected with HSV-1	50% inhibition of HSV infection	[296]
Mexican EE	250 µg/mL	Canine distemper virus	Inhibition of the virus nucleoprotein gene expression	[297]
5% HAE	_	Influenza virus in mice	Prevents influenza viral proliferation	[298]
Brazilian EE	50–100 µg/mL	HRV-2, HRV-3, and HRV-4 in HeLa cells	Block virus entrance into the cells, avoiding virus destruction and replication	[299]
Galangin, kaempferol, quercetin	0.05–1.0 µM	HSV-1	Reduce the viral titer by 2log₁₀	[300]
3-methyl-but-2- enyl caffeate	6.25, 12.5, 25 and 50 µg/mL	HSV-1	Reduce the viral titer by 3log₁₀ and viral DNA synthesis by 32-fold	[301]
CAPE	5 µM	HTLV-1	Inhibits NF-kB activation during in vitro infection	[454]
Green propolis EE	5 mg	Suid herpesvirus type 1 (SuHV-1)	Increases humoral and cellular response in mice immunized with SuHV-1	[455]
Quercetin	5–25 µM 50 µM 1–50 µM	Rhinovirus (RV) Hepatitis C virus (HCV) Hepatitis B virus (HBV)	Inhibits rhinovirus replication in vitro and in vivo; Prevents up-regulation of diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT) required for HCV replication in vitro; Decreases heat shock proteins and HBV transcription levels in vitro	[456] [457] [458]
Caffeic acid	IC₅₀ = 3.9 µM—100 mg/kg b.w. per os; 4 mM IC₅₀ = 7.2 and 8.5 µM on NA1 and NA2, respectively	HBV Influenza A virus (IAV) IAV	Inhibits HBV-DNA replication in vitro and in vivo; Inhibits replication IAV in vitro; Inhibits IAV activity through neuraminidases (NA) in vitro	[277] [459] [460]
Rutin	Binding energy -8.97 kcal/mol (in silico)	SARS-CoV-2	Inhibitory potential on ACE2	[302]
Anatolia propolis EE, hesperetin (HE), pinocembrin (PI), CAPE	IC₅₀ = 0.57–1.14 µL, 16.88 mM, 29.53 mM, 79.09 mM; Binding energy to spike S1 protein: -7.28, -7.54, 7.17 respectively for HE, PI and CAPE	SARS-CoV-2	Binds spike S1 protein and ACE-2 receptor as both in vitro and in silico studies	[303]
Optimized liposomal formula of propolis, rutin and CAPE	IC₅₀ = 1.18 mM, ICM score: -92.8 and -67.8 agaist 3CL protease; ICM score: -94.3 and -77.8 agaist S1 spike protein	SARS-CoV-2	Bind COVID-3CL protease and S1 spike protein; inhibit the viral replication	[304]
Glyasperin A and broussoflavonol F	Binding affinity -7.8 kcal/mol	SARS-CoV-2	Bind SARS-CoV-2 main protease	[305]
Withaferin-A, Withanone and CAPE	Binding affinity: -5.6, -4.3 and -6.20 kcal/mol, respectively	SARS-CoV-2	Bind transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2) in molecular docking studies	[306]
Withanone and CAPE	Binding affinity: -4.42 and -4.79 kcal/mol, respectively	SARS-CoV-2	Bind SARS-CoV-2 protease M^pro	[307]
3'-Methoxydaidzin (MD), neoblavaisoflavone, methylophiopogonone A and genistin	Binding affinity: -7.7 for MD and -7.6 kcal/mol for other compounds against M^pro; -8.1, -8.2, -8.3, and -8.3 kcal/mol, respectively against spike protein S2	SARS-CoV-2	Bind main protease (Mpro) and spike protein subunit 2 (S2)	[308]
Glyasperin A, broussoflavonol F, sulabiroins A, (2S)-5,7-dihydroxy-4'-methoxy-8-prenylflavanone and isorhamnetin	Docking score of -10.8, -9.9, -9.5, -9.3 and -9.2 kcal/mol respectively	SARS-CoV-2	ACE-2 inhibitors	[309]
2,2-Dimethyl-8-prenylchromene, Artepillin C, 3-Prenyl cinnamic acid allyl ester, Isocupressic acid, 13C-symphyoreticulic acid, ellagic acid, syringic acid, caffeic acid phenethyl ester, p-coumaric acid, hesperetin, naringenin, kaempferol, quercetin, chrysin	Binding scores: -5.6—-7.8 kcal/mol against M^pro; -5.3—-6.4 kcal/mol against RdRp	SARS-CoV-2	Main protease (M^pro) and RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) enzymes	[310]