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. 2022 Jul 27;14(8):1564. doi: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14081564

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Activation of responses to protein malformation. These three pathways—IRE1α (a), ATF6 (b) and PERK (c)—are activated in unfolded protein response (UPR) to cope with disturbances in protein folding and to restore endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis after stress. The phosphorylation of eIF2α is a hallmark of immunogenic cell death. Legend: ROS: reactive oxygen species; BiP: Binding immunoglobulin protein; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; IRE1α: inositol-requiring enzyme 1α; XBP1: X box-binding protein 1 mRNA; XBP1S: spliced X box-binding protein 1 mRNA; ATF6: activating transcription factor 6; PERK: protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase; ATF4: activating transcription factor 4; S1P: site-1 protease; S2P: site-1 protease; eIF2α: eukaryotic initiation factor 2α.