Table 1.

History of current clinical therapies in mandibular reconstruction.

Clinical Therapies	Years	Key Events or Representative Publications	Outcomes
Autologous and allogeneic bone transplantation	1949	Review paper of free bone grafts taken from tibia, rib, and iliac crest for mandibular reconstruction [32]	–
	1979	A report on the use of iliac crest free flap with micro-vessels	The superiority of the deep circumflex iliac vessels [33]
	1979–1997	A report of 178 mandibular reconstruction cases using microvascular-free flaps	Donor site selection strategies: ilium, fibula, or scapula (lateral bony defect), fibula (anterior bony defect) [34]
	1981	Combined homologous mandible and autologous bone and bone marrow	Failure in patients who have previous radiation therapy [35]
	1989	The fibula-free flap (FFF) transplantation has become the gold standard	All osteotomies healed primarily in 12 patients [36].
	2009	Non-vascularized bone grafts	Suitable for the condition that the defect is truly lateral and only an extraoral approach. 86% of patients with a successful initial reconstruction [37]
Metallic devices	1909	Silver wire [38]	–
	1953	A stainless-steel mesh prosthesis for mandibular replacement	Successful rate of 67/102 patients, failure in patients associated with histories of previous irradiation, extensive resections, and the loss of distant skin flaps [39]
	1990s	Titanium (Ti) and titanium alloys [40]	71% successful rate. Plate loss occurred in large lateral defects, and pre- or postoperative radiotherapy [41]
	2000	Titanium mesh wrapping cancellous bone grafts	Exposure of the titanium mesh is 7/16 in maxillary and 16/29 in mandible. The success of the bone grafting procedure was 97.72% [42]
	2010s	Magnesium (Mg)-based Materials [43]	Mg screw was able to distribute the stress to the condyle and ramus region compared to polylactic acid polymer group [44]
	2016	Finite element simulation and 3D printing technology prefabricated titanium meshes [45]	21 patients, insufficient bone formation (5 cases), postoperative infection (2 patients), Ti-mesh tray fracture in 2 patients
	2022	Patient-specific 3D-printed miniplates for free flap fixation	High accuracy of reconstruction (3.64 ± 1.18 mm), Osseous union occurred in all intersegmental gaps [46]
Distraction osteogenesis	1992	First applied distraction osteogenesis to the mandibular deformities' reconstruction	Mandibular bone lengthening ranged from 18 to 24 mm [47]
	1996	A report of 5 cases of distraction osteogenesis in maxillofacial surgery	5 patients, premature consolidation (2 cases), significant relapse (1 case) [48]
	1997	Case report on a patient received trifocal distraction osteogenesis in oral floor cancer underwent surgery	Infection developed; Free bone transplants were needed for complete continuity [49]
	2000	Combination of mandibular distraction osteogenesis with electrical stimulation (10 μA)	Significant increase in bone mineral density [50]
	2011	Electrical stimulation on mandibular distraction osteogenesis conducted in clinical trials	10 patients, 16 distraction sites, and direct current electrical stimulation promoted bone healing [51]