Table 3.
Adjusted means (95% confidence interval), percentage difference, and p for a linear trend across quintiles of boiled food consumption.
| Boiled Food Consumption | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Q1 | Q2 | Q3 | Q4 | Q5 | PDs | p | |
| n (median, g/kg of body weight) in men | 232 (2.04) | 232 (2.91) | 232 (3.62) | 232 (4.59) | 231 (6.09) | ||
| n (median, g/kg of body weight) in women | 262 (2.02) | 262 (2.90) | 261 (3.65) | 262 (4.57) | 261 (6.10) | ||
| Anthropometrics | |||||||
| Weight (kg) | 76.9 (76.3–77.5) | 74.0 (73.3–74.6) | 72.0 (71.4–72.6) | 69.9 (69.2–70.6) | 66.7 (65.9–67.4) | −13.3 | <0.001 |
| BMI (kg/m2) | 29.1 (29.0–29.3) | 28.2 (28.1–28.4) | 27.9 (27.7–28.1) | 27.2 (27.0–27.3) | 26.2 (26.0–26.4) | −10.0 | <0.001 |
| MUAC (cm) | 29.2 (29.1–29.3) | 28.9 (28.8–28.9) | 28.6 (28.6–28.7) | 28.4 (28.3–28.5) | 27.9 (27.8–28.0) | −4.50 | <0.001 |
| Waist circumference (cm) | 99.3 (98.8–99.8) | 97.7 (97.1–98.2) | 96.4 (95.9–97.0) | 94.4 (93.8–95.0) | 91.8 (91.2–92.4 | −7.60 | <0.001 |
| Hip circumference (cm) | 105.6 (105.3–106.0) | 103.9 (103.6–104.2) | 103.1 (102.8–103.4) | 101.5 (101.2–101.8) | 100.4 (100.1–100.7) | −4.90 | <0.001 |
| Calf circumference (cm) | 34.3 (34.3–34.4) | 34.0 (33.9–34.1) | 33.7 (33.6–33.8) | 33.7 (33.6–33.8) | 33.2 (33.1–33.3) | −3.20 | <0.001 |
| Cardiovascular risk factors | |||||||
| Total cholesterol (mg/dL) | 188.6 (187.2–190.1) | 189.2 (187.7–190.6) | 190.0 (188.5–191.5) | 190.9 (189.4–192.3) | 191.3 (189.8–192.8) | 1.40 | 0.021 |
| HDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) | 52.6 (52.0–53.2) | 53.8 (53.2–54.3) | 54.4 (53.8–55.0) | 54.6 (54.0–55.2) | 55.0 (54.4–55.7) | 4.60 | <0.001 |
| LDL-cholesterol (mg/dL) | 112.6 (111.6–113.7) | 113.7 (112.6–114.8) | 113.5 (112.4–114.6) | 113.8 (112.8–114.9) | 114.5 (113.4–115.5) | 1.70 | 0.152 |
| Triglycerides (mg/dL) | 109.2 (108.2–110.3) | 102.0 (101.1–102.9) | 103.8 (102.9–104.7) | 105.3 (10.4–106.3) | 102.1 (101.3–103.0) | −6.50 | 0.043 |
| Glucose (mg/dL) | 98.4 (97.8–99.0) | 97.2 (96.6–97.8) | 98.5 (97.9–99.1) | 97.7 (97.1–98.3) | 96.4 (95.8–97.0) | −2.00 | 0.214 |
| HbA1c (%) | 5.82 (5.79–5.85) | 5.76 (5.73–5.78) | 5.83 (5.80–5.86) | 5.74 (5.71–5.77) | 5.77 (5.74–5.80) | −0.90 | 0.338 |
| Insulin (μU/mL) | 11.0 (10.7–11.3) | 9.94 (9.70–10.2) | 10.1 (9.80–10.4) | 9.63 (9.34–9.92) | 8.75 (8.52–8.99) | −20.5 | <0.001 |
| Blood pressure | |||||||
| Casual SBP (mmHg) | 135.0 (134.8–135.1) | 135.9 (135.7–136.1) | 135.4 (135.2–135.6) | 135.4 (135.2–135.6) | 136.3 (136.1–136.5) | 1.00 | 0.884 |
| Casual DBP (mmHg) | 79.4 (79.1–79.7) | 80.2 (79.9–80.4) | 80.0 (79.7–80.2) | 80.0 (79.7–80.3) | 80.5 (80.2–80.8) | 1.40 | 0.539 |
| Casual HR (bpm) | 69.8 (69.5–70.0) | 69.6 (69.3–69.8) | 70.5 (70.3–70.8) | 70.7 (70.5–70.9) | 70.3 (70.0–70.5) | 0.70 | 0.042 |
| 24 h SBP (mmHg) | 127.5 (127.3–127.7) | 128.0 (127.8–128.2) | 127.2 (127.1–127.4) | 125.9 (125.7–126.1) | 127.0 (126.8–127.1) | −0.40 | 0.084 |
| 24 h DBP (mmHg) | 74.7 (74.4–74.9) | 75.0 (74.7–75.2) | 74.3 (74.1–74.5) | 74.0 (73.7–74.2) | 74.4 (74.1–74.6) | −0.40 | 0.085 |
| 24 h HR (bpm) | 68.0 (67.8–68.3) | 67.7 (67.5–67.9) | 68.6 (68.4–68.9) | 67.9 (67.6–68.1) | 67.6 (67.4–67.9) | −0.60 | 0.495 |
| Cardiac function biomarkers | |||||||
| NT-proBNP (pg/mL) | 83.5 (81.5–85.6) | 86.2 (84.0–88.5) | 90.1 (87.7–92.5) | 83.0 (80.9–85.2) | 89.1 (86.7–91.7) | 6.70 | 0.142 |
| Troponin T (ng/L) | 9.90 (9.70–10.0) | 9.70 (9.50–9.90) | 9.60 (9.40–9.90) | 9.30 (9.10–9.50) | 9.50 (9.30–9.70) | −4.00 | 0.032 |
Analyses were adjusted for sex, age (continuous), educational level (primary or less, secondary, university), cigarette smoking status (former, current, never), alcohol consumption (continuous), ex-drinker status (yes, no), recreational physical activity in METS·hours/week (continuous), household physical activity in METS·hours/week (continuous), hours of television (continuous), number of chronic diseases (continuous), number of prescribed medications (continuous), energy intake in kcal/d (continuous), very-long-chain omega-3 fatty acids consumption (continuous), and fiber consumption (continuous). PDs: percentage difference calculated as [(5th quintile − 1st quintile)/1st quintile] × 100, p: p for a linear trend. BMI: body mass index, MUAC: mid-upper arm circumference, SBP: systolic blood pressure, DBP: diastolic blood pressure, HR: heart rate. Analyses for HbA1c and insulin were performed in a nested subsample of 1066 participants.