Table 2.

Review of scientific papers on the application and analysis of the lidar system in the maritime sector.

	Reference	Description of Application	Conclusion
Autonomous navigation and object detection	[76]	Lidar as a part of the sensor system (absolute positioning, visual, audio, and remote sensing sensors) combined with artificial intelligence (AI) techniques for situational awareness in autonomous vessels	Several drawbacks of the current lidar technology are detected for application on autonomous vessels, including limited laser power due to eye-safety issues, lower operational ranges, expensive optics, and unsuitability for the harsh working environment
	[77]	Ship berthing information extraction based on the 3D lidar data using principal component analysis	The effectiveness of the proposed method in dynamic target recognition and safe ship berthing is confirmed by experimental validation on the ro-ro ship berthing
	[78]	Berthing perception framework for maritime autonomous surface ships based on the estimation of the vessel’s berthing speed, angle, distance, and other parameters from the 3D shipborne lidar data	The proposed method allows accurate berthing in real-time, as confirmed by experiments
	[79]	Low-cost lidar-based ship berthing and docking system, with a novel method of fusing lidar and GNSS positioning data	The usefulness of the proposed system in safe ship berthing is proven experimentally during several berthing maneuvers and compared to the GNSS-based navigational aid system
	[80]	Computer-aided method for bollard segmentation and position estimation from the 3D lidar point cloud data for autonomous mooring based on the 3D feature matching and mixed feature-correspondence matching algorithms	The proposed approach is validated on experimental mooring scenes with a robotic arm equipped with lidar
	[81]	Use of the dual-channel lidar for rotorcraft searching, positioning, tracking, and landing on a ship at sea based on the estimation of the azimuth angle, the distance of the ship relative to the rotorcraft, and the ship’s course	The simulation and experimental tests confirm the effectiveness of the developed method and associated models
	[82]	Algorithm for detecting objects on seas and oceans using lidar data for application on maritime vessels in different environmental conditions	A proven accurate object detection method called DBSCAN is used to cluster the data points
	[83]	Detection, monitoring, and classification of objects on seas and oceans based on the SVM classifier and the fusion of lidar and camera data	The proposed method is proven to be highly effective, with an overall accuracy of 98.7% for six classes
	[84]	Detection, classification, and mapping of objects on seas and oceans using an unmanned surface vehicle with four multi-beam lidar sensors and polygon representation methods	The ability to create a map of the environment with detected objects that are not in motion, with polygons being accurate to 20 cm using a 10 cm occupancy grid
Monitoring ocean ecosystems	[85]	A review of the development of profiling oceanographic lidars	The possibility of sea and ocean analysis and monitoring of animal species using lidar is described where these lidars can provide quantitative profiles of the optical properties of the water column to depths of 20–30 m in coastal waters and 100 m for a blue lidar in the open ocean
	[86]	Application of lidar for monitoring and mapping the marine coral reef ecosystems	Successful monitoring of fish, plankton, and coral reef distribution using 3D lidar data
	[87]	Spaceborne lidar for ocean observations	The usefulness of satellite lidar for observations of ocean ecosystems, particularly in combination with ocean color observations
Mapping coastal areas	[88]	A review of lidar application in creating shoreline and bathymetric maps	Lidar, combined with Global Positioning System (GPS), provides accurate topographical and bathymetric coastal maps, with 10–15 cm vertical accuracy, where best water penetration is achieved by using a blue-green laser with a wavelength of 530 nm
	[89]	Classification of large bodies of water using airborne laser scanning (ALS)	Automatic and efficient classification of water surfaces with an SVM classifier, with an accuracy of over 95% for most cases of coastal areas
	[90]	Mapping coastal terrains using unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) lidar	High resolution and quality of topographic data (5–10 cm accuracy) of UAV lidar that outperforms UAV imagery in terms of ground coverage, point density, and the ability to penetrate through the vegetation
	[91]	Semi-automatic coastal waste detection and recognition using 3D lidar data	Possible classification of waste into plastic, paper, fabric, and metal
Other applications	[92]	Monitoring the dynamics of the upper part of the ocean by ship-lidar with the analysis of motion impact on lidar measurements	Measurement of waves, turbulence, and the impact of wind farms on the seas
	[93]	Doppler lidar-based data collection for offshore wind farms	High-resolution measuring of wind speed and direction at various altitudes for proper realization of offshore wind farms