Figure 1.

Effect of abiotic stress on plant morphology, physiology, and biochemistry. Abiotic factors have negative effects on plants’ growth, quantity, and quality; these effects can reduce plant productivity and permanently damages the plants when exposed for a longer period. High concentrations of sodium (Na), Chloride (Cl), and potassium (K) cause ion cytotoxicity in plants; the closure of stomata inhibit the exchange of oxygen (O₂) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). Plants leaves have been damaged by air pollutants such nitrogen oxide (NO₂), ozone (O₃), and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) and soil pollutants such as mercury, iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) (UN-Oceans 2008). Lastly, all abiotic stresses leads to the overproduction of ROS, such as superoxide anions (O²⁻) and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), which are very reactive and damage or kill the plant.