Table 1.

Cardiovascular and Metabolic Outcomes Associated with Early-Life Air Pollution Exposures.

Health Outcome	Population Age	AP Exposure	Exposure Time Window	Association	References
Intrauterine growth restriction	Newborn	PM2.5, PM10, SO2, NO2, O3	Prenatal	↓ Birth weight	[10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40]
	Newborn	PM constituents	Prenatal	↓ Birth weight	[12,13,49,50]
	Newborn	TRAP	Prenatal	↓ Birth weight	[12,38,41]
	Newborn	Wildfire smoke	Prenatal	↓ Birth weight	[60,61,62]
	Newborn	NO2	Prenatal	No association with birth weight	[59]
	Newborn	PM1, PM2.5, PM10, SO2, NO2, O3	Prenatal	↓ Fetal ultrasound measurements	[22,51,52,53,54,55]
Macrosomia	Newborn	PM2.5, PM10, SO2, O3	Prenatal	↑ Birth weight	[44,66]
	Newborn	Wildfire proximity	Prenatal	↑ Birth weight	[63]
Preterm birth	Newborn	PM2.5, PM10, O3, NOx	Prenatal	↑ Odds of preterm birth	[16,18,25,34,56,57]
	Newborn	TRAP	Prenatal	↑ Odds of preterm birth	[58]
	Newborn	Wildfire smoke PM2.5	Prenatal	↑ Odds of preterm birth	[60]
	Newborn	NO2	Prenatal	No association with preterm birth	[59]
Deviant growth trajectory	0–6 years	PM2.5, PM10, NO2, O3, SO2, CO2, CO	Prenatal	↑ or ↓ Anthropomorphic measures	[40,64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71]
	0–12 months	CO, PM2.5	Postnatal	↓ Anthropomorphic measures	[70]
Obesity and metabolic disorder	0–12 months	PM, NO2, O3	Prenatal	↑ BMI, ↑ fat mass, fat mass rate of change, ↑ weight for length	[67,71]
	4–14 years	PM2.5, O3, PAH	Prenatal	↑ BMI, ↑ fat mass	[72,76]
	0–9 years	TRAP, traffic proximity	Prenatal	↑ Fat mass, ↑ overweight risk	[67,73,76]
	6–11 years	PM2.5, NO2, elemental carbon	Childhood	↑ BMI, ↑ overweight or obese risk	[77,78]
	6–10 years	TRAP, traffic proximity	Childhood	↑ Overweight or obese risk, ↑ hemoglobin A1c, ↑ blood pressure	[78,89]
	4, 8 years	Traffic proximity, ambient AP	Childhood (0–4)	No association with obesity, waist circumference, or cholesterol	[79]
	Newborn	PM2.5	Prenatal	↑ Systolic hypertension	[80]
	4–6 years	PM2.5	Prenatal	↑ Microvascular changes	[81,82]
	3–9 years	PM2.5	Prenatal	↑ Blood pressure	[83,84,85]
	Newborn	PM2.5, PM10, NO2	Prenatal	↑ Insulin, ↑ adiponectin, ↑ leptin	[74,86]
	Newborn	TRAP	Prenatal	↑ Adiponectin, ↑ leptin	[75]
	10 years	TRAP and traffic proximity	Prenatal	↑ Insulin resistance	[87]
	4–6 years	PM2.5	Prenatal	↑ Hemoglobin A1c	[88]
	0–5 years	O3, PM10	Childhood	↑ Diabetes	[90]

↑: increasing, ↓: decreasing.