Table 6.

Alterations in the female reproductive system caused by TiO₂ NPs.

Administration/Dose/Species/Size of NPs	Changes	References
Intragastric administration 10 mg/kg/day; 90 days ICR mice not specified	- Accumulation in the ovaries - Hormonal imbalances - Reduced fertility - Disrupted distribution of mineral elements - Oxidative stress	Gao et al., 2012 [75]
Per os 100 mg/kg/day; 5 weeks NMRI mice not specified	- Increased MDA and estrogen levels - Reduction in oocyte count and fertilization rate - Cysts in the ovaries	Karimipour et al., 2018 [76]
Intragastric administration 2.5–10 mg/kg/day; 90 days ICR mice not specified	- Follicular atresia, inflammation, and necrosis - Increased expression of epidermal growth factor, tissue plasminogen activator, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-α	Zhao et al., 2013 [77]