Table 3.

Summary of the experimental studies on phage treatment to reduce colonization of Salmonella spp. in poultry and poultry products.

Experimental Model	Phage	Inoculation Dose	Phage Delivery Method	Outcomes (Compared with Control)	Reference
Broiler chicken	Three Salmonella phage	109–11 PFU	Oral	Phage reduced cecal colonization of Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium by ≥4.2 log10 CFU and ≥2.9 log10 CFU, respectively, within 24 h.	[21]
Leghorn chicken specific-pathogen-free (SPF)	Three-phage cocktail	1010 PFU	Oral	When the bacteriophage cocktail was given 1 day before or immediately after bacterial infection, and then again on different days following infection, there was a decrease in Salmonella concentration in the chicken cecum.	[112]
Broiler chicken	Three-phage cocktail	1011 PFU	Oral	The colony-forming units of Salmonella Enteritidis PT4 per gram of cecal content were reduced by 3.5 orders of magnitude in the bacteriophage-treated group.	[113]
Chicken carcasses	Salmonella spp. phage	10⁹ PFU/mL	Spraying	No Salmonella Enteritidis was detected in two trials and more than 70% reduction was achieved in the other two trials.	[114]
SPF chicks	Salmonella spp. phage	1.18 × 1011 PFU–1.03 × 102 PFU	Oral	Cecal contents indicated a moderate decrease in Salmonella loads at 3 days post infection (dpi), with a greater reduction at 5 days post infection (dpi). All of the chicks were negative for Salmonella from 7 dpi through the completion of the trial at 15 dpi.	[115]
Broiler chicks	Mixture of bacteriophage	2.5 × 109–7.5 × 109 PFU	Oral	Compared to untreated controls, Salmonella Enteritidis retrieved from cecal contents was reduced at 12 and 24 h following treatment.	[116]
One-day-old chicks	Bacteriophage ΦCJ07	105, 107 and 109 PFU	Oral	In challenged and contact chickens, all treatments reduced intestinal Salmonella colonization; after 3 weeks of treatment, no intestinal Salmonella was detected in 70% of contact hens treated with 109 PFU/g of bacteriophage.	[117]
Seven-day old chickens	Three different Salmonella-specific bacteriophages	103 PFU	Spray	When competitive exclusion plus bacteriophage was used, the mean Salmonella Enteritidis cecal count decreased (1.6 × 102 CFU/g) compared to the control group (1.56 × 105 CFU/g).	[118]
Six-week-old chickens	Salmonella Gallinarum (SG)-specific bacteriophage	106 PFU	Oral	In comparison to untreated contact hens, contact hens treated with the bacteriophage showed a considerable reduction in mortality.	[119]
Broiler chicks	Salmonella Enteritidis phage	108 PFU	Oral	On day of trial 14, bacteriophage treatments significantly reduced the incidence of Salmonella Enteritidis in cloacal swabs.	[120]
Broiler chicks	P22hc-2, cPII and cI-7 and Felix 0	5 × 1011 PFU	Oral	In phage-treated hens, average cecal bacterial counts were 0.3–1.3 orders of magnitude lower than in untreated controls.	[121]
Ten-day old chickens	Three lytic phages	103 PFU	Spray and Oral	Aerosol-spray of bacteriophages resulted in 72.7% decrease in the incidence of Salmonella Enteritidis infection. In addition, counts of Salmonella Enteritidis indicated that phage administration by coarse spray and drinking water decreased the bacteria′s colonization in the gut.	[122]
White Leghorn chicks	Φ st1	1012 PFU/mL	Intracloacal inoculation	Within 6 h of post-challenge, the Salmonella count had dropped to 2.9 log10 CFU/mL, and Salmonella Typhimurium was undetectable at and after 24 h.	[123]
Eggs	PSE5	4 × 107 PFU	Immersion	A reduction by 2 × 106 CFU/mL of Salmonella was achieved after phage treatment.	[110]
Liquid egg	Pu20	108 or 109 PFU/mL	Direct inoculation	At 4 °C and 25 °C for 24 h, the quantity of live bacteria in the treatment group reduced by up to 1.06 log10 CFU/mL and 1.12 log10 CFU/mL, respectively, and the highest antibacterial efficacy was 91.30% and 92.40%, respectively, when multiplicity of infection (MOI) = 1000.	[124]
Liquid whole egg	Two phages (OSY-STA and OSY-SHC)	n/a	Direct inoculation	1.8 and >2.5 log CFU/mL reduction in Salmonella Typhimurium and Salmonella Enteritidis, respectively.	[125]
Chicken breasts and fresh eggs	UAB_Phi 20, UAB_Phi78, and UAB_Phi87	109 PFU/mL and 1 × 1010 PFU	Soaking in suspension and spraying	Salmonella reduction was >1 log10 CFU/g in chicken breasts. In fresh eggs, a reduction of 0.9 log10 CFU/cm2 in Salmonella was observed.	[126]
Raw chicken breast	Five Salmonella phages	3 × 108 PFU	Suspension added on surface	The largest reductions in the number of Salmonella Enteritidis and Salmonella Typhimurium in phage-treated group were 3.06 and 2.21 log CFU/piece, respectively, when incubated at 25 °C.	[127]
Chicken breast	Two-phage cocktails	4 × 109 PFU/mL	Added on surface	After 5 h, the Salmonella Enteritidis concentration on chicken breast was reduced by 2.5 log CFU/sample	[128]
Chicken breasts	SPHG1 and SPHG3	8.3 log10 PFU	Spotted	The phage cocktail was applied to chicken breasts at MOIs of 1000 or 100, and the viable count of Salmonella Typhimurium was significantly reduced.	[129]
Chicken breast meat	Four Salmonella phage	108, 109, and 1010 PFU/mL	Directly added	When raw chicken breast samples were treated with a cocktail of all four bacteriophages at 4 °C for 7 days, viable cell counts of bacteria were considerably reduced.	[130]
Chicken breast fillets	Salmonella lytic bacteriophage preparation	109 PFU/ml	Spraying	Salmonella reductions of 1.6–1.7 and 2.2–2.5 log CFU/cm2 were achieved with the use of chlorine and PAA followed by phage spray.	[131]
Chicken skin	Eϕ151, Tϕ7 phage suspension	109 PFU	Spray	Salmonella reductions were 1.38 log10 MPN (Enteritidis) and 1.83 log10 MPN (Typhimurium) per skin area following phage treatment.	[17]
Chicken skin	vB_StyS-LmqsSP1	2.5 × 108 PFU/cm2	Direct addition	Phage treatment of chicken skin resulted in about 2 log units reduction in Salmonella isolates from the first 3 h throughout a 1-week experiment at 4 ℃.	[132]
Raw chicken meat and chicken skin	SE-P3, P16, P37, and P47	10⁹ PFU	Direct inoculation	Throughout storage at 4 and 25 °C, phages reduced the number of viable Salmonella cells in samples containing 103 CFU/g to undetectable levels.	[133]
Chicken meat	Five bacteriophages	109 PFU/mL	Direct inoculation	Compared to control, application of phage cocktail results in 1.4 logarithmic unit reduction at 10 ℃ at 48 h.	[134]
Chicken meat	Three lytic bacteriophages Ic_pst11, Is_pst22, and Is_pst24	108, 107, and 106 PFU/mL	Direct addition	At MOIs of 100, 1000, and 10,000, a substantial decline in the viable count of Salmonella Typhimurium was seen at 7 h after phage application with reductions of 1.17, 1.26, and 1.31 log10 CFU/g.	[135]
Chicken meat	STGO-35-1	4 × 106 PFU/mL	Direct addition	Phage treatment caused a significant 2.5 log10 reduction of Salmonella Enteritidis.	[136]
Chicken frankfurters	Felix O1	5.25 × 106 PFU	Direct addition of liquid	Suppression levels of 1.8 and 2.1 log units of Salmonella Typhimurium were achieved by two variants of phages.	[137]
Duck meat	fmb-p1	9.9 × 109 PFU	Direct inoculation	4.52 log CFU/cm2 reduction in Salmonella Typhimurium counts in ready-to-eat duck meat was found.	[138]