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. 2022 Aug 8;28(4):891–911. doi: 10.1089/ten.teb.2021.0088

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© Tori Salem, et al., 2022; Published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.

This Open Access article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons License [CC-BY] (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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FIG. 3. — Techniques for cardiovascular tissue engineering. A summary of techniques for cell acquisition, construct fabrication, tissue maintenance, as well as the two major end products. (A) Heart cells are either retrieved from extracted heart tissue or generated through stem cell-based differentiations. (B) Isolated heart cells are then formed into a 3D construct through a variety of techniques. (C) 3D constructs are then matured through chemical, mechanical, and electrical stimulation. (D) The finalized product is then used to either model disease and study heart physiology or is used to form a useful heart construct for a patient. Color images are available online.