Table 2.

General aspects of the selected articles in 2020.

Authors/year	Country	N. of patients	Age (years)	Gender	Design	Main oral lesions or alterations	Outcome
Antoniazzi et al. (2017)19	Brazil	80	–	–	Cross-sectional study	Reduction of salivary flow	Significant association between the use of crack-cocaine and reduced salivary flow.
Antoniazzi et al. (2018)15	Brazil	212	–	–	Cross-sectional study	Cell alterations in the oral mucosa (karyolysis, karyorrhexis, “broken egg” events and micronuclei)	Crack-cocaine users had a higher incidence of fundamental lesions.
Bains et al. (2005)20	United Kingdom	2	36 and 70	M	Case report and literature review	Palatal perforation	There is a relationship between palatal perforation and cocaine use.
Oñate et al. (2018)21	Chile	1	44	M	Case report	Destructive lesions in the midline	It was possible to diagnose a destructive lesion in the midline induced by cocaine, through the histological findings.
Blanco et al. (2017)22	Argentina	1	42	F	Case report	Palatal perforation	Palatal defects create functional difficulties related to speech and swallowing. Prosthetic rehabilitation with an obturator may be necessary to restore the function.
Brusati et al. (2009)23	Italy	1	46	F	Case report	Destruction of bone tissue in the facial midline, palate, anterior skull base, frontal bone and left orbital bone.	Extensive destruction of the craniofacial region, where four free flaps in association with the base of the skull and forehead are reconstituted with bone grafts and the use of implants.
Chaiben et al. (2014)24	Brazil	60	21 to 45	F	Experimental study	Loss of taste	The users found it difficult to recognize the salty, sweet and bitter tastes. Overall, the users mistook the salty flavor for sour or bitter taste and 20 (66.6%) were diagnosed with hypogeusia.
Chaparro- González et al. (2018)25	Venezuela	32	On average 37.7	M and F	Descriptive observational field study	Caries and periodontal disease	The most frequently used drugs were crack, followed by cocaine and marijuana. There is a predominance of caries (87.5%), followed by the presence of signs of periodontal disease.
Cury et al. (2018)26	Brazil	161	≥18	M	Cross-sectional observational study	Traumatic ulcer, actinic cheilitis, and fistula associated with retained tooth root	Prevalence of oral mucosa lesions (traumatic ulcer, actinic cheilitis, and fistula associated with retained tooth root) was higher in crack/cocaine addicts and crack/cocaine addiction was significantly associated with the occurrence of oral mucosa lesions.
Cosola et al. (2007)27	Italy and Spain	6	29 to 46	M and F	Case series	Palatal perforation	In all described cases, perforation of the nasal septum occurred first, followed by extensive destruction of the nasal and paranasal sinuses, with progression to palatal necrosis.
Dovigi et al. (2015)28	USA	1	41	M	Case Report	Palatal perforation	Midline destructive lesions induced by cocaine are a result of ischemic necrosis triggered by cocaine in a small subset of cocaine users, especially those who are predisposed to producing ANCA.
Hofstede et al. (2010)29	USA	1	48	M	Case Report	Midline destructive lesions	Palatal defects (erosion of the palate, nasal septum and inferior nasal turbinates) create functional difficulties related to speech and swallowing. Subsequent prosthetic rehabilitation with an obturator may be necessary to restore function in this group of patients.
Maia et al. (2012)30	Brazil	1	27	F	Case Report	Pyoderma Gangrenosum	The association between Pyoderma Gangrenosum and cocaine use is poorly described, since there are only two cases in the literature.
Martinez et al. (2014)31	Spain	1	45	F	Case Report and Literature Review	Destructive lesions of the midline with oronasal fistula	In the presence of necrotic lesions in the midline, with inconclusive nasal biopsies, the associated presence of palatal perforation is more typical of destructive midline lesions induced by cocaine or extranodal lymphoma than Wegener’s granulomatosis.
Rosas et al. (2006)32	Mexico	1	48	F	Case Report	Palatal perforation	The abusive intranasal cocaine use can induce necrosis and focal ischemia, which causes destruction of the secondary mucosa and the mid-facial bone.
Paradisi et al. (2020)33	Argentina	1	37	M	Case Report	Palatal perforation	The lesions present in the oral cavity as a result of medication use are irreversible if there is no control over time.
Pelo et al. (2008)34	Spain	1	45	M	Case Report	Oronasal communication	Le Fort I osteotomy and the use of the Bichat’s fat pad as a bilateral flap is an effective technique in the correction of small and medium-sized oronasal communications that cannot be resolved with a simple oral mucosa flap.
Candina et al. (2013)35	Cuba	43	13 to 29	M and F	Cross-sectional observational study	Periodontal diseases	Drug addicts had a high frequency of periodontal diseases, such as mild and moderate gingivitis and gingivitis with pocket formation, without periodontitis.
Shibli et al. (2005)36	Brazil	1	27	M	Case Report	Unusual onlay bone graft failure	Gingival recession and dental erosion have been associated with the local application of cocaine and its intense vasoconstrictor effect, which is responsible for these effects.
Sordi et al. (2017)37	Brazil	35	19 to 56	M and F	Cross-sectional study	Reduction in the salivary flow rate and mucosal lesions, aphthous stomatitis, frictional keratosis, candidiasis, tooth extraction scars and depapillation of the tongue	Illicit drug users, mainly of cocaine (77.15%), showed a reduction in the salivary flow rate and an increase in the number of lesions.
Stahelin et al. (2012)38	Brazil	1	43	F	Case Report	Midline destructive lesions	Although the ANCA test does not clearly differentiate the ANCA found in some patients with MDL from those in patients with WG, localized involvement and biopsy findings not typical of small vessel granulomatous vasculitis should be recognized as characteristics of cocaine-induced lesions.
Tsoukalas et al. (2000)39	USA	1	46	F	Case Report	Palatal perforation by three oronasal fistulas	Chronic nasal cocaine users can go to a dental office for routine care. If the dentist suspects cocaine abuse, all comprehensive treatment should be suspended until medical clearance.

ANCA, antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies; MDL, midline destructive lesions; M, male; F, female.