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. 2022 Aug 25;12(8):e050913. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-050913

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© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2022. Re-use permitted under CC BY. Published by BMJ.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported (CC BY 4.0) license, which permits others to copy, redistribute, remix, transform and build upon this work for any purpose, provided the original work is properly cited, a link to the licence is given, and indication of whether changes were made. See: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Hypothesis 1. Orange bubble=national variable; yellow bubbles=local variables; green bubbles=immediate theorised impacts stemming from levy introduction. Solid line: positive relationship between variables; dashed line: inverse relationship between variables; dotted green lines: theorised impacts stemming from the levy introduction. ASB, anti-social behaviour; NTE, night-time economy.