Fig. 2.

RNF proteins regulate the TLR signaling pathway. TLRs locate at both plasma membrane and endosomes. TLRs sense different ligands like viral nucleic acids and viral envelope glycoproteins and recruit TRIF and MyD88 to transduce signals, ultimately activating IRFs and NF-κB to product IFN-I and proinflammatory cytokines. RNF proteins positively (green arrows) or negatively (red T-shaped solid line) regulate multiple steps downstream of the TLR signaling pathway. P, phosphate