TABLE 4.
Pesticides classification according to pest type, functions, and management strategies.
| Type of pesticide | Type of pests | Functions | Pests and disease management | References |
| Aldicarb | Nematicides | Inhibit nematodes (plants parasites) | Damage tissue via oxidative stress, and also binds and inhibits acetylcholinesterase (AChE) (controlling acetylcholine neurotransmitter) | Yadav and Devi, 2017; Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020 |
| Insecticides | Inhibit insects and other arthropods also | |||
| Atrazine | Herbicides | Destroy weeds and other plants, photosystem-II (PSII)–inhibiting | Use to control grasses and broadleaf weeds in sorghum, corn, and sugar cane crops | Gupta and Crissman, 2013; Yadav and Devi, 2017 |
| Avitrol | Avicides | Chemicals that lethal to small seed-eating birds | Used for population management of certain birds (crows, gulls, cowbirds, blackbirds, starlings, grackles, pigeons, sparrows, red-winged blackbirds) | Yadav and Devi, 2017; NIPHM, 2018; Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020 |
| Azoxystrobin | Fungicides | Kill fungi (blights, rusts, molds, and mildews), azoxystrobin act fungal mitochondrion, binds to cytochrome bc1 complex and inhibit electron transport thorough oxidative phosphorylation. | Uses to kill Oomycetes, Ascomycetes, Deuteromycetes, BasidiomycetesAnd it controls disease like apple scab rusts, rice blast, powdery and downey mildew. | Yadav and Devi, 2017; Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020 |
| Benzoxazin | Ovicides | Prevention of mites and insects egg growth | In pest managmeent | Yadav and Devi, 2017; Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020 |
| Bifenazate | Acaricides | Control spiders and mites that feed on plants and animals by altering their growth and development. Target site of Bifenazate is mitochondrial, particularly the Qo site of that encoded for cytochrome b | Bifenazate uses as an acaricide on strawberry, flowering plants, and nursery ornamentals | Van Nieuwenhuyse et al., 2012; Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020; Authority et al., 2021 |
| Boric acid | Desiccants | Act on plants by drying their tissues | Use to bed bug control | Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020; United States Environmental Protection Agency [US-EPA], 2022 |
| Copper complexes | Bactericides | Prevent bacteria with greater doses, copper works as a broad-spectrum biocide by interfering with nucleic acids, disrupting enzyme active sites, interfering with the energy transport system, cell membranes integrity disrupted | Copper complexes are used to prevent infection of seedlings from plant pathogens by seed treatment | Yadav and Devi, 2017; Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020 |
| Copper sulfate | Algaecides | Control or kill growth of algae | Alter the algal growth and photosynthesis | Lamichhane et al., 2018; Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020 |
| Dichlorobenzene | Moth balls | Inhibit molds and moth larvae and prevent cloths damage | Commonly used to control moths, molds, and mildew | Yadav and Devi, 2017; Eastmond and Balakrishnan, 2010 |
| Fipronil | Termiticides | Fipronil inhibits termites by acting as a GABA antagonist and leads to excessive CNS excitation and causes death | Used in seed coatings and granular soil treatments to control unwanted arthropods in many kinds of food, horticultural, and turf plants | Cannon and Ruha, 2013; Beasley, 2020; Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020 |
| Methiocarb | Repellents | Repel pest vertebrates and invertebrates by its taste or smell | Use as a seedling bird repellant and also effective against frit fly larvae. | Finch et al., 2014; Yadav and Devi, 2017 |
| Methoprene | Larvicides | Prevents larvae growth | Uses as mosquito larvicide, also effective against horn flies, mushroom flies in compost, dipteran pests of livestocks, nuisance flies, highly selectivity for insects and no acute toxicity is expected in humans | Ramaseshadri et al., 2012; Monteiro and Jurado, 2014; Yadav and Devi, 2017 |
| Metaldehyde | Molluscicides | Prevent mollusk’s (snail’s) usually disturbing growth of plants or crops | Use in vegetables and gardens, to kill slugs, snails, other garden pests | Yadav and Devi, 2017; Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020 |
| Rotenone | Piscicides | Toxic and act on fishes | Uses in fisheries and fish management strategies (where unbalanced population of fish) | Gupta, 2014; Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020 |
| Scytovirin | Virucides | Acts against viruses | Control of viral infections and diseases | Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020 |
| Tebuthiuron | Silvicides | Specific to woody vegetation and act on it | Uses to manage the undesirable plants or unwanted forest species and apply to eliminate trees and brush or “entire forest” | Yadav and Devi, 2017 |
| Trifluromethyl nitrophenol (TFM) | Lampricides | Target larvae of lampreys by uncoupling mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and ATP production reduces which ultimately leads to death | TFM used to control invasive sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) | Birceanu and Wilkie, 2018; Hassaan and El Nemr, 2020 |