TABLE 5.

Mode of interaction of various pesticides with DNA.

Pesticide	Pesticide group	Mode of interaction	References
Chloridazon or Pyrazon	Organochlorine herbicide	Intercalation via GC region	Ahmadi et al., 2011
Fenitrothion	Organophosphorus insecticide	Partially intercalation via NO2 and the C Form conformation	Ahmadi et al., 2013
Permethrin, deltamethrin	Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides	Groove binding and partial intercalation	Ahmadi and Ghanbari, 2014
Methyl Thiophanate	Fungicide	Non-intercalative groove binding via AT region	Saquib et al., 2010
Propyzamide	Herbicide	Intercalation via AT region	Zhang et al., 2015
Edifenphos	Organophosphate pesticide	Electrostatic binding minor groove binding via AT region	Ahmad and Ahmad, 2018
Tau-fluvalinate, flumethrin	Synthetic pyrethroid pesticide	Hydrogen bonding and Van der Waals forces, minor groove binding via AT region	Tao et al., 2016
Dinitramine	Herbicide	Hydrophobic interactions, major groove binding	Daneshmehr et al., 2016
Resmethrin	Synthetic pyrethroid insecticides	Hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals forces, groove binding via GC region	Tao et al., 2015
Pendimethalin	Herbicide	Intercalation via GC region	Ahmad et al., 2016
Organophosphates	Pesticide	DNA methylation	Paul et al., 2018
Organophosphate, pyrethroids	Fumigation insecticide	DNA methylation	Paredes-Céspedes et al., 2019
Endosulfan	Pesticide	DNA hypomethylation	Mahna et al., 2021
Glyphosate	Pesticide	DNA hypermethylation	Mahna et al., 2021
Diazinon	Pesticide	DNA hypermethylation	Mahna et al., 2021
Fonofos, parathion, terbufos	Pesticide	DNA hypermethylation	Mahna et al., 2021