Figure 3.

Percent reduction in levelized cost of electricity ($/kWh) from the introduction of unidirectional (V1G) and bidirectional (V2G) charging EVs in the same system: Cost reductions are greatest in systems dominated by wind and solar power. V2Gs provide substantially greater value than V1Gs, especially when total V1G penetration is low, but there is substantial benefit of having some V2Gs in the system even when V1G penetration his high. V1Gs can limit charging at times of greatest net demand, whereas V2Gs can also provide electricity to the system at times of greatest net demand.