Table 1.

Sources of timing errors and solutions.

Error type	Sections	Solution	Sections
Drifting clocks	2.1	Clock synchronization, modeling clock drift	6.1
Delays due to digital filters	3.2	Audit algorithmic delays	6.1
Lag of variables derived from waveforms	3.3, 3.1	Reverse engineer averaging windows	6.2
Imprecisely defined sample frequencies	2.4	Accurately measure all sample frequencies	2.3, 2.4
Lack of standard definitions	5.4	Establish standard nomenclature	5.4
Changes in data collection systems	6.3	Establish “epochs” of data uncertainty	7.2
Transcription errors	4.5	Implement temporal logic checks	6.5
Limitations of digital data types	6.6	Select appropriate temporal data types	6.6
Uncertainty due to rounding of times	4.3	Monte Carlo Analysis	7.1, 7.3
Digit Preferencing	4.4	De-convolve mixed precision datasets	7.2
Access to multiple, inaccurate sources of time	4.1	Clock synchronization, use of a “master clock”	6.1
Fallible human perception of elapsed time	4.2	Estimate extent of possible errors	4.2
Software bugs	5.5	Audit timestamps	6.5
Quantization of recorded times	7.1	Audit resolution of all recorded times	7.1
Unsynchronized signals	6.2	Real-time or retrospective synchronization	6.2
Event time not recorded	N/A	Algorithmically determine event time	6.4

The solutions generally aim to identify, model, and correct epistemic temporal uncertainties, and to represent any remaining aleatoric temporal uncertainty as a probability density function.