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. 2022 Aug 8;26(4):300. doi: 10.3892/mmr.2022.12816

Figure 3.

Figure 3.

The antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties of AST. AST can activate phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 signaling pathways, leading to the production of heme oxygenase-1, NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase-1, glutathione-S-transferase-α1, glutamate-cysteine ligase modifier subunit and glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic subunit for the attenuation of oxidant effects. The NF-κB signaling pathway is initially activated by tumor necrosis factor and produces pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and growth factors, such as IL-1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor α. AST can block excessive NF-κB signaling and downregulate the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. AST reduces the expression of inflammatory factors and suppresses the activation of caspases and Bax, while increasing the level of Bcl-2. Red arrows indicate inhibitory action and black arrows denote enhancement action. AST, astaxanthin; Casp, caspase; MDA, malondialdehyde; IL-1β, interleukin-1 β; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor α; IL-6, interleukin-6; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase; AD, Alzheimer's disease; p-IKKα, p-IκB kinase α; Bcl-2, B-cell lymphoma-2; HO-1, heme oxygenase-1; Nrf2, nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; Akt, Akt, protein kinase B; GSK-3β, glycogen synthase kinase 3β; PARP, poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase; AIF, apoptosis inducing factor; ROS, reactive oxygen species; Bax, BCL2-Associated X; Cyt-c, cytochrome c; NMDA, N-methyl-D-aspartate; PD, Parkinson's disease; NOX2, nitrogen oxide 2; SOD, superoxide dismutase; GSH, glutathione; IR, ischemic reperfusion; NQO1, NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase-1; GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein;MAP-2, microtubule-associated protein-2; BDNF, brain-derived neurotrophic factor; GAP-43, growth-associated protein 43; NO, nitric oxide; iNOS, inducible nitric oxide; MDA, malondialdehyde; CAT, catalase; GPX, Glutathione peroxidase; GST-α1, glutathione-s-transferase-α1;SAH, subarachnoid hemorrhage; ICAM-1a, intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 a; Apaf-1, apoptotic protease activating factor-1.