Fig. 1.

Multiscale biohybridization. Subcellular biohybrid systems are actuated by dynamic molecular interactions and the catalytic activity of enzymes. Microrobots can be obtained from individual motile cells (e.g., bacteria, algae, protozoa, sperm cells). Contractile cells can be assembled in vitro to form micro- and milli-scale actuators consisting of functional muscle-tissue constructs. Tissue can be explanted from animals and integrated into machines for various functions (e.g., actuation or auditory sensing). Finally, multicellular organisms can either be used to command the machines or controlled by integrated artificial devices.