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. 2022 Aug 19;13:971298. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2022.971298

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Copyright © 2022 Schaffner and Kobor.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Genetic, environmental, and epigenetic underpinnings of Parkinson’s disease. Individual genetic background, environmental exposures (e.g., pesticides), and lifestyle-related factors (e.g., exercise, smoking, head trauma) influence PD risk. These factors may act directly or indirectly through modification of DNA methylation and/or DNA hydroxymethylation patterns, which in turn can influence the regulation of genes involved in neurodegenerative pathways. Head injury icon created by George E. Thomposon (thenounproject.com).