FIG. 4.

Timing of BCAA treatment affected markers for microglia (IBA-1; red) and astrocytes (GFAP; brown) post-TBI. Representative coronal sections from (A) sham mice, (B) pre-treated mice, (C) post-treated mice, (D) Pre- + Post-treated mice, and (E) untreated TBI mice. All brain-injured groups exhibited focal regions of increased IBA-1 and GFAP, particularly the hippocampus (increased magnification in panels F–J) and cortex (increased magnification in panels K–O), whereas uninjured sham mice displayed minimal levels of both markers. Scale bar for panels A through E = 1.6 mm. Scale bars for panels F through J and K through O = 400 μm. BCAA, branched-chain amino acid; GFAP, glial fibrillary acidic protein; IBA-1, ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1; TBI, traumatic brain injury.