Table 2.

Non-randomized studies with blood pressure outcomes of time-restricted eating in adults with overweight/obesity and/or metabolic syndrome

Study	Study design	Participants	Intervention	Primary outcome	BP outcomes	Main results	Limitations & notes
Gabel et al. [56]	Non-randomized, pre-post with age-, BMI-, and sex-matched subjects from a previous weight loss trial	Healthy adults with obesity (N = 23; 3 M, 20F)	TRE: 8 h (10:00–18:00) AL intake Duration: 12 weeks	Weight	SBP ↓ by 7 ± 2 mmHg relative to controls (p = 0.02) No significant differences in DBP	Mean weight loss 2.6% ± 0.5 relative to controls (p < 0.001) No significant differences between groups for fasting lipids, glucose, or insulin	Unintentional caloric reduction of 341 ± 53 kcal/d relative to controls No concurrent control group High drop-out rate (26%)
Anton et al. [63]	Non-randomized, pre-post	Older adults ≥ 65 years of age with overweight/obesity and mild to moderate functional limitations (N = 10; 4 M, 6F)	TRE: self-selected 8 h AL intake Duration: 4 weeks	Weight	No significant changes in SBP or DBP	Mean weight loss 2.6 kg (p = 0.009)	No assigned or report eating window Small sample size Short intervention duration No dietary intake data
Wilkinson et al. [55•]	Non-randomized, pre-post	Adults with metabolic syndrome + eating interval of ≥ 14 h/day (N = 19; 13 M, 6F)	TRE: Self-selected 10 h AL eating window (start between 8:00–10:00 and end by 18:00–20:00) Duration: 12 weeks	Unspecified	SBP ↓ by 5.1 ± 9.51 mmHg (p = 0.041). DBP ↓ by 6.5 ± 7.94 mmHg (p = 0.004)	Weight loss 3.3 ± 3.2 kg (p = 0.0003) A trend towards lower fasting insulin by 3.63 ± 8.01uIU/mL (p = 0.064) No significant changes in fasting glucose, HbA1c, or CGM outcomes	Unintentional caloric reduction of 8.62 ± 14.47% (average 198.6 cal/day) Dropout/missing data rate of 20.8% (5/24) Small sample size
Parr et al. [64]	Non-randomized, pre-post	Adults with type 2 diabetes, overweight/obesity, and baseline eating window > 12 h/day (N = 19; 9 M, 10F)	TRE: 9 h 10:00–19:00 Duration: 2 weeks habitual period followed by 4 weeks TRE	Feasibility	No differences in SBP or DBP	No differences in HbA1c, glucose or insulin levels between habitual vs TRE periods No differences in weight, body composition	Dropout rate ~ 20% (5/24) TRE ↓ total reported energy intake by ~ 1000 kJ/day (~ 11%) on days when participants were adherent to TRE Short intervention duration
Przulj et al. [65]	Non-randomized, pre-post	Adults with obesity or overweight with comorbidities (N = 50; 13 M, 37F)	TRE: self-selected 8 h AL eating window Duration: 12 weeks	Adherence	No differences in SBP or DBP No differences in BP changes between those who lost ≥ 5% of their body weight vs those who did not	Overall weight loss of 2.6 kg (95% CI 1.8–3.3) More weight loss in adherent group (3.5 kg)	Incomplete follow-up/dropout rate of 23.5% (12/51) 58% adherence rate at week 12 No data on energy intake
Schroder et al. [66]	Non-randomized, parallel arm	Women with obesity (N = 32; 20 TRE vs 12 control)	TRE: 8 h AL eating 12:00–20:00 Control: maintain same dietary and living habits Duration: 12 weeks	Weight, body composition	SBP ↓ by 5.4 mmHg in TRE (p = 0.03) and by 6.5 mmHg in control (p = 0.23) without significant between-group difference (p = 0.48) DBP ↓ by 3.4 mmHg in TRE (p = 0.06) and by 4.8 mmHg in control (p = 0.17) without significant between-group difference (p = 0.97)	TRE ↓ weight by 4.8 kg more than control No between-group difference in insulin, glucose, lipid outcomes	Selection bias (participants volunteered for TRE vs control arm) No data on energy intake No data on adherence
Prasad et al. [57]	Non-randomized, pre-post	Adults with overweight/obesity and eating duration ≥ 14 h (N = 16)	TRE: Self-selected 10 h AL eating window (start within 3 h after usual wake time and end at least 3 h before usual bedtime) Duration: 90 days	Weight; BP; feasibility of intervention by smartphone app	SBP ↓ by 12 ± 11 mmHg (p = 0.002)	Weight loss: 2.1 ± 3.0 kg (p = 0.017)	Only 16/25 completed the intervention (6 due to COVID-19) Time of the measurements varied and were based on participant availability Adherence to intervention was low (average adherence 47% ± 19%)

TRE time-restricted eating, OGTT oral glucose tolerance test, BP blood pressure, SBP systolic blood pressure, DBP diastolic blood pressure, M male, F female, AL ad libitum, CGM continuous glucose monitor, HbA1c hemoglobin a1c