Table 1.

Genetic markers for molecular turtle research.

Allozymes	Alleles of a catalyst can be identified by various electrophoretic versatility (usually starch or cellulose acetic acid derivation gels). Since mtDNA haplotypes and microsatellites have become more popular as markers for population genetics and paternity analysis [48,57,88], a well-developed method has been used only a few times in turtle concentrates.
Anonymous scnDNA	Various PCR preliminaries have been created for sea turtles to intensify mysterious single-copy nuclear DNA loci. Variety in intensified items is inspected by RFLP or sequencing and has not been utilized much since microsatellites became the more mainstream nuclear DNA marker [48,61,62,63,64,65,89].
Microsatellites	Pair rehashes of a 1–6 bp “core” grouping. The evaluation strategy gives single-locus data. Bespoke introductions for PCR intensification are intended for the microsatellite’s flanking areas. The hypervariable idea of a microsatellite is several rehashes of the left change effectively. Moreover, single-locus information implies that more impressive scientific strategies are conceivable than multilocus fingerprinting. It has become a mainstream marker for the population’s genetic qualities. It is a technique for determining paternity in turtles [48,90,91,92].
Minisatellites	This is the first DNA fingerprinting technique. Dispersed across the nuclear genome are families of tandemly repetitive “minisatellite” regions sharing a 10–15 bp “core” sequence. Variation in the recurrent number is acquired. Moreover, minisatellites are exceptionally polymorphic (hypervariable) as genetic markers at the individual and population levels. It has been used only once for sea turtles since microsatellites became the more common marker [55,93].
MtDNA Haplotypes	For sea turtles, it is normal to utilize arrangement variety in the control district of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). These are named “haplotypes” because the mitochondrial genome exits as a single copy (haploid). An approximately 400 bp piece is enhanced with a standard arrangement of groundworks. In current examinations, the variety is composed of the improved items by sequencing. More seasoned investigations may utilize Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) or other fast screening methods. The haplotypes at the Archie Carr Center for Sea Turtle Research are put in order by a normalized classification [94,95].
RAPDs	Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD). A PCR-based procedure utilizes short (10 bp) oligonucleotide primers in random arrangement to create different PCR results of contrasting sizes isolated on an agarose gel. The multilocus technique was momentarily famous in molecular ecology because of its modest and straightforward convention. However, it tumbled from favor when reproducibility turned into an issue. I am mindful of just one turtle study that utilized it [56,96,97].
RFLP	Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP). Limitation compounds have the potential to cut DNA at explicit acknowledgement groupings. In order to create parts of reproducible size from any substrate DNA particle (nuclear or mitochondrial DNA), they should be be isolated by the electrophoresis process. The variation between individuals in the sizes of DNA fragments is caused by mutations that create or eliminate restriction enzyme recognition sequences and is used as an indication of genetic variation. It was previously popular for assessing mtDNA haplotype variation in turtles, but direct sequencing has largely replaced RFLP. In addition, it was briefly used in turtle studies for anonymous scnDNA [48,61,62,63,64,65,98,99].