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Overview of upstream signaling pathways that regulate macroautophagy. Autophagy induction is initiated when mTOR signaling is suppressed by a range of stress modalities and an upstream signaling cascade. Abbreviations: PKB, protein kinase B; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; TSC1, tuberous sclerosis complex 2; TSC2, tuberous sclerosis complex 2; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin.
