Table 1.

Identification and application of existing lung organoids.

Organoid Model	Original Cells or Tissues	Differentiated Cell Types and Biomarker	Potential Application	Limitation	Ref.
Human lung organoids (HLOs)	hPSCs iPSCs	Goblet cells (MUC5AC) Ciliated cells (FOXJ1, ACTTUB) Multi-ciliated cells (FOXJ1) Club cells (SCGB1A1) Basal cells (P63, NGFR, CK5) ATII cells (SFTPC, SFTPB) ATI cells (HOPX, PDPN) Distal progenitor (NMYC, ID2) Proximal lung (SOX2) Distal lung (SOX9)	Lung development, Proximal and distal epithelium maturation, Epithelial–mesenchymal interactions, Airway remodeling after injury, Epithelial–mesenchymal crosstalk.	No branching morphogenesis; Lack of immune cells, vasculature, innervation.	[32] [37] [39] [40]
Lung bud organoids (LBOs)	hPSCs hESCs	Goblet cells (MUC5AC+, MUC5B) Ciliated cells (FOXJ1) Club cells (CC10) Basal cells (p63+) ATII cells (SFTPC, SFTPB, ABCA3, HT2-280) ATI cells (HT1-56, HOPX, PDPN, CAV1, SCNN1A, AKAP5, CLIC5) Neuroendocrine cells (SNY, CHGA)	Lung development, Epithelial fate decisions, Pulmonary fibrosis.	Terminal maturation, Branching appears random, Exact nature and patterning of the mechanism unclear, Biased toward distal lung.	[17] [41] [39]
Human proximal airway organoids (hAWOs)	hPSCs	Multi-ciliated cells (FOXJ1) Goblet cells (MUC5AC+) Basal cells (TP63+, KRT5+) Club cells (SCGB3A2+)	Inherited airway diseases (cystic fibrosis, primary ciliary dyskinesia), Drug screening, Precision medicine.		[35] [42]
Human alveolar organoids (hALOs)	hPSCs lung epithelial stem lung progenitor cells	ATII cells (SFTPC) ATI cells (PDPN)	Respiratory diseases (idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, tuberculosis infection, respiratory virus infection), Individualized medicine.	Hard to model inflate and deflate during gas exchange; Lack of developed vasculature.	[43] [42]